tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-76042999596621099482024-03-13T23:22:55.772-07:00This EnglandImages and text of all that is good of EnglandPeter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.comBlogger52125tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-14770840932711570632017-06-18T12:12:00.002-07:002017-06-18T13:46:24.680-07:00Theresa .....who?<div style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2017</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-large;">THERESA......WHO ?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">This was the response of the author of this blog - when the party in question became the 'First Lord of the Treasury ' (the 'first what of the what' ? - you may also be asking yourself).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">And many people, in the near future will undoubtedly also be asking, 'Theresa who ?).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Well, the repetitious use of the word 'may' - could answer your question - for we are talking about Theresa May.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">EARLY LIFE & INFLUENCES</span></div>
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The daughter of Zaidee Brasier (née Barnes) and Hubert Brasier, a vicar, our Theresa grew up in Oxfordshire.</div>
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Hubert Brasier later became vicar of Enstone with Heythrop, and finally of St Mary's at Wheatley, to the east of Oxford.</div>
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May's mother was a strong supporter of the Conservative Party</div>
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May was educated primarily in the state sector, but with a short spell at an independent Catholic school.</div>
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She initially attended Heythrop Primary School, a state school in Heythrop, followed by St. Juliana's Convent School for Girls, a Roman Catholic independent school in Begbroke, which closed in 1984.</div>
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When she was 13, May won a place at the former Holton Park Girls' Grammar School, a state school in Wheatley.</div>
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During her time as a pupil, the Oxfordshire education system was reorganised and the school became the new Wheatley Park Comprehensive School.[</div>
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May then attended the University of Oxford, where she read geography at St Hugh's College, graduating with a second class BA degree in 1977.<br />
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May has been married to Philip May, an investment banker, since 6 September 1980; the couple have no children.<br />
The Mays are passionate hikers, and they regularly spend their holidays hiking in the Swiss Alps.<br />
May is also a cricket fan (?) - probably trying to emulate John major, claiming Geoffrey Boycott was one of her sporting heroes<br />
.She also likes cooking, and has said that she owns 100 cookery books.<br />
May is a member of the Church of England and regularly worships at church on Sunday.The May has said that her Christian faith "<i>is part of me. It is part of who I am and therefore how I approach things</i>".<br />
May is known for a love of fashion (?), and in particular distinctive shoes - however, and any review of her recent photos will indicate that she, in truth, has appalling taste and 'fashion sense'.</div>
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CAREER</div>
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From 1977 until 1983, she worked for the Bank of England, and from 1985 until 1997 at the Association for Payment Clearing Services, also serving as a councillor for Durnsford in Merton.</div>
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After unsuccessful attempts to be elected to the House of Commons in 1992 and 1994, she was, (probably unfortunately), elected as the MP for Maidenhead in the 1997 general election.</div>
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From 1999 to 2010, May held a number of roles in the Shadow Cabinets of William Hague (who ?), Iain Duncan Smith (?), Michael Howard (?), and David Cameron, including Shadow Transport Secretary and Shadow Work and Pensions Secretary.</div>
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She was also Chairman of the Conservative Party from 2002 to 2003.</div>
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After the formation of a coalition government following the 2010 general election, May was appointed Home Secretary and Minister for Women and Equalities, giving up the latter role in 2012.</div>
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Reappointed after the Conservative victory in the 2015 general election, she went on to become the longest-serving Home Secretary since James Chuter Ede over 60 years previously.</div>
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During her tenure she pursued reform of the Police Federation, implemented a harder line on drugs policy including the banning of 'khat' (no, not cats), oversaw the introduction of elected Police and Crime Commissioners, the deportation of Abu Qatada, the creation of the National Crime Agency, and brought in additional restrictions on immigration.</div>
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Following Cameron's resignation on 24 June 2016, May won the ensuing leadership election on 11 July, and was appointed Prime Minister two days later.</div>
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As Prime Minister, May begun the process of withdrawing the UK from the European Union, triggering Article 50 on 29 March 2017.</div>
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BUNGLED ELECTION CAMPAIGN</div>
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On 18 April, May announced that she would call a parliamentary vote to hold an early general election on 8 June, saying that it was the "<i>only way to guarantee certainty and security for years ahead</i>".</div>
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May had previously ruled out an early election on five occasions over nine months.</div>
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The election was the first snap election held under the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011 after MPs gave May the two-thirds super-majority required.</div>
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Unveiling the Conservative manifesto in Halifax on 18 May, May promised a "<i>mainstream government that would deliver for mainstream Britain</i>" - where do they get these platitudinous little catc phrases from ?</div>
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It proposed to balanced the budget by 2025, raise spending on the NHS by £8bn per year, and on schools by £4bn per year by 2022, remove the ban on new grammar schools, means-test the winter fuel allowance, replace the state pension "triple lock" with a "double lock" and require executive pay to be approved by a vote of shareholders.</div>
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It dropped the 2015 pledge to not raise income tax or national insurance contributions, but maintained a commitment to freeze VAT.</div>
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New sovereign wealth funds for infrastructure, rules to prevent foreign takeovers of "critical national infrastructure" and institutes of technology were also proposed.</div>
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The manifesto was noted for its intervention in industry, lack of tax cuts, and increased spending commitments on public services.[</div>
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On 'Brexit' (that's a non-existent word meaning 'the leaving of the EU' [Common Market?]) it committed to leaving the single market<i> and</i> customs union while seeking a "<i>deep and special partnership</i>" (whatever that might mean), and promised a vote in parliament on the final agreement.</div>
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The manifesto also proposed reforms to social care in England that would raise the threshold for free care from £23,250 to £100,000 while include property in the means test and permitting deferred payment after death.</div>
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After attracting substantial media attention, four days after the manifesto launch May stated that the proposed social care reforms would now include an "<i>absolute limit</i>" on costs, in contrast to the rejection of a cap in the manifesto.</div>
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She criticised the "<i>fake</i>" portrayal of the policy in recent days by Labour, and other critics who had termed it a "<i>dementia tax</i>".</div>
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Evening Standard called the policy change a "<i>U-turn</i>".</div>
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The Financial Times contrasted her supposedly "<i>Strong and Stable</i>" leadership slogan with her own record of <i>nine</i> rapid <i>U-turns,</i> claiming she was "making a habit of retreating from policies."<br />
Lulled into a false sense of security by her apparent but excessively brittle popularity, her attempt to obtain a mandate form the people with a landslide victory for the Conservative party was woefully misjudged and ill timed, and almost all aspects of her campaign were incompetently planned, managed and executed.</div>
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RETROSPECT<br />
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The electorate in the 21st Century have become very much prey to a phenomena that could be described, with the somewhat ugly term - as 'short-termism'.<br />
This is very much a phenomena created by our present 'popular culture', fed by films that rely on 'effects' rather than characters or plots, internet phenomena such as twitter, which require people to abbreviate their thoughts to the point where they become practically meaningless, and where a particular phenomena (be it a book, a recipe, a sport, a fashion or whatever) becomes, if briefly, the ultimate object or attitude '<i>of our desire</i>', and then - within a very short space of time, is almost completely obliterated from peoples' awareness and memories.<br />
And so it is with '<i>non-entities</i>' like Theresa May.<br />
Initially posing as a '<i>latter day</i>' Margaret Thatcher, in some ways she has more in common with the much reviled Tony Blair, (except that unlike 'early' Tony she has no obvious 'charm').<br />
Tony, of course, was '<i>prince charming</i>', flashing his boyish smile.<br />
Unfortunately Tony had no - (<i>NO</i>) convictions, except that he<i> loved</i> Tony.<br />
So he went whichever way the wind was blowing - as long as he thought that it would help Tony.<br />
In reality, of course, Tony wanted to be a 'pop star' (he actually belonged to a 'group' at one time), but he had<i> no</i> talent, so for him, the best way to become rich and famous was to become a politician - but<i> without</i> the politics.<br />
Theresa is like Tony in that she goes whichever way the wind is blowing - and as soon as the going got tough, people realized that fact, and were not happy.<br />
What most people do not seem to accept is that Theresa, in the election, was up against a complete<i> no-hoper</i> - an old guy living politically in the 1940s.<br />
He shouldn't have stood a chance, and Theresa should have won with a '<i>landslide</i>' - but she actually ended up with a '<i>hung parliament</i>'.<br />
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PRIME MINISTERS IN RETROSPECT<br />
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Unfortunately, in recent times there have been very few <i>committed</i> prime ministers who one might be able to respect - even if one did not always agree with all their policies.<br />
We can, however make a 'short' list of possible candidates.<br />
Going back there was, of course, Atlee - the creator of the welfare state.<br />
A self-effacing, simple man - about as far away from Blair as one could get.<br />
Also - and a very different character - was conservative prime minister Harold Macmillan.<br />
Seemingly more aristocratic and patrician than he could really lay claim to be, he had been a 'guards officer' in the first world war, and was (while often ruthless) in most ways a 'gentleman' - a description that has long gone out of fashion.<br />
Alec Douglas Hume, although much maligned, was very similar.<br />
Of the later Labour prime ministers, Wilson was an unprincipled, uncultured fool - endlessly burbling on about the 'white heat of technology' - whatever that was.<br />
Blair was all surface - 'smoke and mirrors'.<br />
John Major was probably the most underrated (and misrepresented) of all recent prime ministers, with his unassuming and <i>genuine</i> desire to have '<i>a nation at ease with itself</i>' - a most laudable - and at the present time, much needed goal.<br />
Thatcher - well words fail one to describe someone so obviously strange - and essentially un-English.<br />
And our Theresa - ?<br />
Well it is dangerous to make prognostications, but it seems likely that she will be soon forgotten - and perhaps - just as well.<br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-2965550125376843702016-12-26T06:17:00.006-08:002022-04-17T02:08:38.769-07:00George Michael - Spirit of the 80s<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">GEORGE MICHAEL</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"> - 'SPIRIT of the 80s' -</span></div>
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<a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-nCIAPux9zDY/WGElcDRoNDI/AAAAAAAAc4o/xggw-9ZBsYwy8bBaq5iyVMzLx60etT9tACLcB/s1600/George%2BMichael%2B-%2BLast%2BChristmas%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="245" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-nCIAPux9zDY/WGElcDRoNDI/AAAAAAAAc4o/xggw-9ZBsYwy8bBaq5iyVMzLx60etT9tACLcB/w489-h245/George%2BMichael%2B-%2BLast%2BChristmas%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland.jpg" width="489" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><i>'Last Christmas, I gave you my heart</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif;"><i>But the very next day, you gave it away'</i></span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif" style="text-align: justify;">George Michael sold more than 80 million records worldwide in a career spanning four decades - but his life in recent years was been dogged by controversy.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif" style="text-align: justify;">Georgios Kyriacos Panayiotou (25 June 1963 – 25 December 2016), known professionally as 'George Michael', was an English singer, songwriter, and record producer who rose to fame as a member of the music duo 'Wham !'.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">He was best known in the 1980s and 1990s with his style of 'post-disco' dance-pop, with best-selling songs such as "Last Christmas" and "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go".</span><br />
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<a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-I_X9CXcXawM/WGFEGgMenqI/AAAAAAAAc7E/gl6ib9IopTY1duDjGn4XOXuEjQbkIzCMACLcB/s1600/Wham%2B-%2BClub%2BTropicana%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="258" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-I_X9CXcXawM/WGFEGgMenqI/AAAAAAAAc7E/gl6ib9IopTY1duDjGn4XOXuEjQbkIzCMACLcB/w249-h258/Wham%2B-%2BClub%2BTropicana%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="249" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;">THE 1980s and CLUB TROPICANA</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Retrospectively, the decade was a defined by the predominance of fluorescent colors, big shoulder pads, aviator sunglasses, "Preppy" polo shirts, leg warmers, leather trousers, blonde highlights, and certain cultural artifacts defined the aesthetics.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Some of the TV imagery was was summed up by programs such a </span><span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">'Grange Hill', 'Neighbours' 'Home and Away' (just scraping in), and 'Dynasty', and the soundtrack was a kind of relentlessly upbeat parade of groups like 'Duran Duran', 'Culture Club', 'Ultravox', and of course 'Wham !'</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">A handful of music videos, (Ultravox 'Vienna' is particularly notable), from the period helped to shape the '<i>New Romantic</i>' youth image, among them ‘Club Tropicana’, with its palm trees, white Speedos and bright pink cocktails; and the video has had a lasting effect on the way that the song, and to some extent 'Wham !' generally, have been remembered.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-sIckzoIJJg0/WGGRSHyXWSI/AAAAAAAAc8I/8c5J-RG0O3cz4Mkzy5F8y1kD1Pr8cR1BwCLcB/s1600/Ultravox%2BVienna%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="247" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-sIckzoIJJg0/WGGRSHyXWSI/AAAAAAAAc8I/8c5J-RG0O3cz4Mkzy5F8y1kD1Pr8cR1BwCLcB/w401-h247/Ultravox%2BVienna%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="401" /></a></td></tr>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">'Wham !', of course, could be seen by some as and example of pure 'Thatcherism': a couple of upwardly mobile kids from the suburbs, happily splashing their self-made money on flashy holidays and cocktails.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The vision of 'Club Tropicana', for the average teenager was certainly aspirational, and it was basically about</span><span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"> making life as good as it can be - and in particular celebrating youth, beauty and a generalized sense of sexuality (or should that be bi-sexuality).</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">There is, undoubtedly, something expansive about this: and in the song, and the video , the duo are celebrating a world where the drinks are free, and there’s enough for everyone.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"><table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody><tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Juti5LiuCbI/WGGPl_mGupI/AAAAAAAAc78/Zl1Y7SQadh0bd_CLuDgd1_VmZJcIGAR1gCLcB/s1600/george-michael-and-andrew-ridgeley-of-pop-group-wham-february-1986.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="406" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Juti5LiuCbI/WGGPl_mGupI/AAAAAAAAc78/Zl1Y7SQadh0bd_CLuDgd1_VmZJcIGAR1gCLcB/w406-h406/george-michael-and-andrew-ridgeley-of-pop-group-wham-february-1986.jpg" width="406" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">George Michael and Andrew Ridgeley</td></tr></tbody></table>"<i>Come on</i>", they seem to be saying, "<i>we all deserve a piece of this</i>."</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">It is striking how few of the 'Wham !' hits, however, are really straightforward love songs. Relationships are not generally a cause for celebration for these boys.</span><br /></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">In ‘Young Guns’ relationships are for '</span><i style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;">boring suckers</i><span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">', and the later, double A-side pairing of ‘Last Christmas’ and ‘Everything She Wants’, gives is somewhat gloomy, featuring 'full-on' heartache on the one hand, and manipulation, dishonesty and resentment on the other.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Even in ‘Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go’ and ‘Freedom’, which have ostensible love objects, it is hard to make out what they’re actually about.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">No, the real source of joy in 'Wham !' is something bigger and more inclusive, and this is all there in ‘Club Tropicana’.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The song is littered with thrilling pop moments, from the cicadas/slap-bass intro to the ‘<i>Pack your bags</i>’ middle eight, and its dramatic build up.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">GEORGE MICHAEL - EARLY LIFE</span><br />
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">George Michael was born in East Finchley, London.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">His father, Kyriacos Panayiotou, a Greek Cypriot restaurateur, moved to England in the 1950s and changed his name to Jack Panos.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Michael's mother, Lesley Angold (née Harrison; 1937–1997), was an English dancer.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Michael spent the majority of his childhood in Kingsbury, London, in the home his parents bought soon after his birth; he attended Kingsbury High School.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">While he was in his early teens, the family moved to Radlett, Hertfordshire.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">There, Michael attended Bushey Meads School in the neighboring town of Bushey, where he befriended his future Wham! partner Andrew Ridgeley.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The two had the same career ambition of being musicians.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Michael would busk on the London Underground, performing songs such as "'39" by Queen.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">His involvement in the music business began with his working as a DJ, playing at clubs and local schools around Bushey, Stanmore, and Watford.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">This was followed by the formation of a short-lived ska band called 'the Executive', with Ridgeley, Ridgeley's brother Paul, Andrew Leaver, and David Mortimer (later known as David Austin).</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"><br /></span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">ANDREW RIDGELEY - THE OTHER HALF</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"></span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-jwI92_3cbdA/WGGHO8onM0I/AAAAAAAAc7U/we0UGsBfk6Q2W4dkwhEq4sqCbzFT-J_2gCLcB/s1600/Andrew%2BRidgeley%2B-%2BWham%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="269" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-jwI92_3cbdA/WGGHO8onM0I/AAAAAAAAc7U/we0UGsBfk6Q2W4dkwhEq4sqCbzFT-J_2gCLcB/w207-h269/Andrew%2BRidgeley%2B-%2BWham%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="207" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Andrew Ridgeley</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Andrew John Ridgeley (born 26 January 1963) is an English singer, songwriter and record producer.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">He was best known in the 1980s as the other half of 'Wham!'.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Andrew Ridgeley was born in Windlesham, Surrey to Jennifer and Albert Ridgeley.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">His mother is English, and his father is of Italian and Egyptian descent.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Ridgeley grew up in Bushey, Hertfordshire, and attended Bushey Meads School.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">His mother was a schoolteacher at Bushey Heath Primary School, and his father worked for Canon.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">When George Michael was enrolled at the school, Ridgeley volunteered to take him 'under his wing'.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">After years of playing in various music groups, Michael and Ridgeley eventually formed 'Wham !'. </span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-cB16jVCj3B4/WGGJac_X6SI/AAAAAAAAc7k/XVQFcWfS_aEc6yuEEu0jBh0XH3J34_LmwCLcB/s1600/Young%2BGeorge%2BMichael%2B-%2BWham%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="247" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-cB16jVCj3B4/WGGJac_X6SI/AAAAAAAAc7k/XVQFcWfS_aEc6yuEEu0jBh0XH3J34_LmwCLcB/w227-h247/Young%2BGeorge%2BMichael%2B-%2BWham%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="227" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Young George Michael</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-BDt21dSk99Q/WGGJXeNtLRI/AAAAAAAAc7g/tV7UnllT_ds2cG0IcF9eQm3x-c6vWBzBQCLcB/s1600/Young%2BAndrew%2BRidgeley%2B-%2BWham%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="260" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-BDt21dSk99Q/WGGJXeNtLRI/AAAAAAAAc7g/tV7UnllT_ds2cG0IcF9eQm3x-c6vWBzBQCLcB/w195-h260/Young%2BAndrew%2BRidgeley%2B-%2BWham%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="195" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Young Andrew Ridgeley</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">They then approached various record labels with a homemade tape (which took ten minutes to record in Ridgeley's living room), and signed with 'Innervision Records'.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">According to 'I'm Coming to Take You to Lunch', a book written by Wham's manager, Simon Napier-Bell, the band left 'Innervision' after the first album and signed with CBS.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Since retiring from active music-making, Ridgeley has remained active in music-writing under various pseudonyms.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Since 1982, he has reportedly amassed £10 million from sales and royalties of records.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Although the single "Careless Whisper" was issued as a George Michael solo piece, it was co-written by Ridgeley.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">It has sold six million copies worldwide and, to date, is the 34th best-selling single of all time in the United Kingdom, having sold over 1.3 million copies.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Ridgeley still benefits financially from receiving thousands of pounds per annum from his share of "Careless Whisper" royalties alone.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"><br /></span>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">WHAM ! - THE DYNAMIC DUO</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"><br /></span>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">George Michael formed the duo Wham! with Andrew Ridgeley in 1981.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WoRXGOSGHik/WGE44EMa-TI/AAAAAAAAc6A/kVx_d_MvI9El2BssZOx9-RlgdhtOz3wVgCLcB/s1600/wham%2B-%2Bpop-group%2B-%2Bgeorge%2Bmichael%2B-%2Bandrew%2Bridgeley%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="254" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WoRXGOSGHik/WGE44EMa-TI/AAAAAAAAc6A/kVx_d_MvI9El2BssZOx9-RlgdhtOz3wVgCLcB/w254-h254/wham%2B-%2Bpop-group%2B-%2Bgeorge%2Bmichael%2B-%2Bandrew%2Bridgeley%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="254" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">George Michael and Andrew Ridgeley</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The band's first album Fantastic reached No. 1 in the UK in 1983 and produced a series of top 10 singles including "Young Guns", "Wham Rap !" and, of course, "Club Tropicana".</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Their second album, 'Make It Big', reached No. 1 on the charts in the US.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Singles from that album included "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go" (No. 1 in the UK and US), "Freedom", "Everything She Wants", and "Careless Whisper" which reached No. 1 in nearly 25 countries, including the UK and US, and was Michael's first solo effort as a single.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"></span><br /></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: justify;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1PeSR0Mq8Do/WGEqe-QrugI/AAAAAAAAc5I/xS5B1qmzUFoNgrtGmrW591Ls-chay0hSwCLcB/s1600/Wham%2B-%2BGeorge%2BMichael%2Band%2BAndrew%2BRidgeley%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="269" src="https://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1PeSR0Mq8Do/WGEqe-QrugI/AAAAAAAAc5I/xS5B1qmzUFoNgrtGmrW591Ls-chay0hSwCLcB/w269-h269/Wham%2B-%2BGeorge%2BMichael%2Band%2BAndrew%2BRidgeley%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="269" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">George Michael and Andrew Ridgeley</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Wham !'s first manager was Bryan Morrison.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">
</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The effect of 'Wham !' on the public, especially teenage girls, was felt from the moment they finished their début performance of "Young Guns (Go for It!)" on 'Top of the Pops'. Michael wore espadrilles, an open suede jacket, and rolled-up denim jeans.</span></div>
</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Ridgeley stood behind him, flanked by backing dancers Dee C. Lee and Shirlie Holliman. </span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Afterwards, the song shot into the Top 40 at No. 24 and peaked at No. 3 in December.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The following year (1983), Dee C. Lee began her work with Paul Weller in 'The Style Council', and was replaced by Pepsi DeMacque. </span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Holliman and DeMacque would later record as Pepsi & Shirlie.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"><br /></span>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/--3bd7_3l5RY/WGEvsOgaMuI/AAAAAAAAc5Y/ap2L5rbTKI8_bEE8pYKsUCvL87vYp6tLACLcB/s1600/GEORGE-MICHAEL%2B-%2Bibiza-paradise%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="179" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/--3bd7_3l5RY/WGEvsOgaMuI/AAAAAAAAc5Y/ap2L5rbTKI8_bEE8pYKsUCvL87vYp6tLACLcB/w349-h179/GEORGE-MICHAEL%2B-%2Bibiza-paradise%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="349" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">George Michael</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">'Wham !' followed up "Young Guns (Go for It!)" with a reissue of "Wham Rap! (Enjoy What You Do)", "Bad Boys" and "Club Tropicana".</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">By the end of 1983, Wham! were competing against pop rivals 'Duran Duran' and 'Culture Club' as Britain's biggest pop act.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Their début LP 'Fantastic' spent two weeks at No. 1 in the UK album charts in 1983.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0MUXI38yi-M/WGE3sMXPLHI/AAAAAAAAc50/3d6ZvP77CB0NG04t-vilT354D7Ghe_b_ACLcB/s1600/wham%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="276" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0MUXI38yi-M/WGE3sMXPLHI/AAAAAAAAc50/3d6ZvP77CB0NG04t-vilT354D7Ghe_b_ACLcB/w335-h276/wham%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="335" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'Wham !' in Shorts</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Notoriety and increased newspaper and magazine coverage were duly achieved with their antics of placing shuttlecocks (?) down their shorts during performances on their first tour, the 'Club Fantastic Tour'.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Now signed to 'Epic Records' (and other CBS Records imprints around the world), 'Wham !' returned in 1984 with an updated pop image.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"><br /></span>
<br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">These changes helped to propel Wham !'s next single, "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go", to the top of the charts<i> around the world.</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">It became their first UK #1 single, and rose to that position in the USA as well, accompanied by a memorable video of the duo with Pepsi and Shirlie, all wearing Katharine Hamnett T-shirts with the slogans "<i>CHOOSE LIFE</i>" and "<i>GO GO</i>".</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-aRi5030KVtw/WGE2XGYWKrI/AAAAAAAAc5o/Mp9YBTGp5KEBQmO0DPoI0BLir-amzmZ8QCLcB/s1600/George%2BMichael%2Band%2BAndrew%2BRidgeley%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-aRi5030KVtw/WGE2XGYWKrI/AAAAAAAAc5o/Mp9YBTGp5KEBQmO0DPoI0BLir-amzmZ8QCLcB/w379-h265/George%2BMichael%2Band%2BAndrew%2BRidgeley%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="379" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">George Michael and Andrew Ridgeley</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif"></span><span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The next single, the unsurpassed "Careless Whisper" was issued as a George Michael solo piece, yet unlike any 'Wham !' single except "Wham Rap!" and "Club Tropicana", it was (significantly) co-written by Ridgeley.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The song, about a remorseful two-timer, had <i>more emotional depth</i> than previous releases.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">It quickly reached No. 1, selling over 1.3 million copies in the UK.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">"Careless Whisper" marked a new phase in George Michael's career, as he somewhat distanced himself from 'Wham !'s' 'playboy' image.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">In the U.S. - so as not to confuse American listeners just being exposed to 'Wham !' - the single was billed as "Wham! featuring George Michael".<br />In the autumn of 1984, 'Wham !' returned as a duo with "Freedom", another UK chart-topper, and the first single for quite some time to reach #1 in the UK without an accompanying video.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">'Wham !' subsequently decided to use a video edited together from footage of their tour of China in time for "Freedom's" U.S. single release.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The group by then had achieved <i>three number-one singles in a row</i>.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">In November, they released their second album, 'Make It Big', which quickly climbed to #1 on the album charts, and the band set off on an arena tour at the end of 1984.</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-5jyQiIHv1CE/WGE7EBFwfNI/AAAAAAAAc6U/IZ0YXKVHvYkR0J4KbFQhUd4tnqojveZtgCLcB/s1600/george-michael-and-andrew-ridgeley%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="264" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-5jyQiIHv1CE/WGE7EBFwfNI/AAAAAAAAc6U/IZ0YXKVHvYkR0J4KbFQhUd4tnqojveZtgCLcB/w391-h264/george-michael-and-andrew-ridgeley%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="391" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">George Michael and Andrew Ridgeley</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The famous double A-side single "Last Christmas/Everything She Wants" became the <i>highest-selling single</i> ever to peak at No. 2 in the UK charts.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">It stayed at No. 2 for five weeks and, to date, is the<i> 24th best-selling single of all time in the United Kingdom,</i> selling over 1.4 million copies in the UK.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">'Wham !' donated all their royalties from the single to the Ethiopian famine appeal to coincide with the fund-raising intentions of Band Aid's "Do They Know It's Christmas?", the </span><span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">song which kept them out of the top spot.</span></div>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Nevertheless, Band Aid's success meant that Michael had achieved #1 status in the UK within three separate entities in 1984 - as a solo artist, as one half of a duo, and as part of a charity ensemble.<br />At the end of 1985, the U.S. Billboard charts listed "Wake Me Up Before You Go-Go" as the number-three song, and "Careless Whisper" as the<i> number-one song of the year</i>.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">In March 1985, Wham! took a break from recording to embark on a lengthy world tour, including a ground-breaking 10-day visit to China, <i>the first by a Western pop group.</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-KW8TEMSPtcY/WGFADiMQWHI/AAAAAAAAc6k/KQRPtLQXcLIku8hn0UKKezTOTpgNWwlPwCLcB/s1600/Wham%2Bin%2BChina%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="260" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-KW8TEMSPtcY/WGFADiMQWHI/AAAAAAAAc6k/KQRPtLQXcLIku8hn0UKKezTOTpgNWwlPwCLcB/w258-h260/Wham%2Bin%2BChina%2B-%2BThis%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="258" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'Wham !' in China</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The China excursion was a publicity scheme devised by Simon Napier-Bell (one of their two managers - Jazz Summers being the other).</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">It culminated in a concert at the 'Workers' Gymnasium' in Beijing, in front of 15,000 people.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">'Wham !'s' visit to China attracted huge media attention across the world.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Napier-Bell later admitted that he used cunning tactics to sabotage the efforts of rock band 'Queen' to be the first to play in China: he made two brochures for the Chinese authorities – one featuring 'Wham !' fans as pleasant middle-class youngsters, and one portraying 'Queen' lead singer Freddie Mercury in typically flamboyant poses.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The Chinese opted for 'Wham !'.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">British Director Lindsay Anderson (the great English director - soon to be featured on this blog) was engaged to accompany 'Wham !' to China and make a documentary film about the visit.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The film was shot over two weeks of March and April, and edited over late spring and summer 1985 in London.</span></div>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The film was later re-edited, renamed and released as 'Foreign Skies: Wham ! In China'.</span><br />
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">BREAKUP (1986)</span><br />
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Michael was keen to create music targeted at a more sophisticated 'adult' market rather than the duo's primarily teenage audience and therefore, Michael and Ridgeley officially announced the breakup of 'Wham !' in the spring of 1986.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Before going their separate ways, a farewell single "The Edge of Heaven", and a greatest hits record titled 'The Final' would be forthcoming, along with a farewell concert entitled 'The Final'.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Announcing the breakup, Michael said: "<i>I think it should be the most amicable split in pop history</i>."</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The farewell single reached No. 1 in June 1986. "Where Did Your Heart Go?" was the group's final single in the United States.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The song was a gloomy and somber affair.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The duo's last release was a double-LP collection of all the singles to date, including some extended versions.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">This was released in North America as the severely pared-down 'Music from the Edge of Heaven' with alternate tracks.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">At London's Wembley Stadium on Saturday 28 June 1986, 'Wham !' bade goodbye to their fans, and each other, with an emotional embrace at the end of its final concert.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">72,000 people attended the eight-hour event, which included support artists, on a scorching hot day in London.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The band had been together for five years, selling over <i>25 million albums</i> and <i>15 million singles</i>.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">'Foreign Skies', the documentary of their tour of China, received its world premiere as part of the festivities.</span><br />
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">POST 'WHAM !'</span><br />
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">The youthful and exuberant spirit of the 80s undoubtedly ended with the demise of 'Wham !' - with nothing to take its palce.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">In 2012, Michael said that there was no truth in speculation that he and Ridgeley were set for a 'Wham !' reunion to mark the 30th anniversary of the group's first record.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"> 'Club Tropicana' life-style'</td></tr>
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">George Michael's solo career continued, with his music aimed mainly at older, more (supposedly) 'mature' fans - no longer youthful and able to enjoy the exuberance of the 'Club Tropicana' life-style'.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Michael' personal life, however, lost its previous verve and innocence, as he became involved in drug-taking and sexual scandals - and he soon lost his youthful, boyish good looks, and became overweight and in poor health for a man who was still relatively young.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Financially, however, he was a success, and between 2006 and 2008, according to reports, Michael earned £48.5 million ($97 million) from the '25 Live' tour alone.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">In July 2014, Michael was reported to have been a celebrity investor in a tax avoidance scheme called 'Liberty'.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">According to the 'Sunday Times Rich List' 2015 of the wealthiest British musicians, Michael was worth £105 million</span><br />
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">DEATH IN A MINOR KEY</span><br />
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<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">Although George Michael's death, at the end of 2016, came as a shock to many, it was undoubtedly caused by his unhealthy life style.</span><br />
<span face=""trebuchet ms" , sans-serif">From the 'golden boy' of the 80s, Michael had undergone a sad decline - which should be a salutatory warning to many......</span></div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-83566660513814357882015-08-03T03:12:00.012-07:002022-04-17T07:38:45.617-07:00T E Lawrence - a Case of Confused Identity<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><span class="gphoto-photocaption-caption">© Copyright<i> Zac </i>Sawyer 2015</span></span></span></td></tr>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-large;"> LAWRENCE of ARABIA</span></span></span><br /><span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><br /><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-hrunP0Cl0fE/VcJ9v4bME6I/AAAAAAAAcIs/HQGaM431odE/s1600/Zac%2Bas%2BT%2BE%2BLawrence%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg"><img border="0" height="312" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-hrunP0Cl0fE/VcJ9v4bME6I/AAAAAAAAcIs/HQGaM431odE/w378-h312/Zac%2Bas%2BT%2BE%2BLawrence%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="378" /></a><br /><span style="font-size: xx-small;"><br /> © Copyright Zac Sawyer 2015</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">'Zac as T E Lawrence'</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span><br /><span><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: x-large;">DEDICATION</span></span><br /><span style="font-size: xx-small;"> </span><br /> <i><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: large;">'I loved you, so I drew these tides of men into my hands<br /> and wrote my will across the sky in stars<br /> To earn you Freedom, the seven-pillared worthy house,<br /> that your eyes might be shining for me<br /> When we came.'</span></i><br /><br /><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-1Ajg4yAuvKc/VcJ-1vjt9LI/AAAAAAAAcIw/sEIhtJsDs8g/s1600/Pete%2Bas%2BDahoum%2B-%2BPortrait%2B-%2BT%2BE%2BLawrence%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg"><img border="0" height="422" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-1Ajg4yAuvKc/VcJ-1vjt9LI/AAAAAAAAcIw/sEIhtJsDs8g/w282-h422/Pete%2Bas%2BDahoum%2B-%2BPortrait%2B-%2BT%2BE%2BLawrence%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="282" /> </a> <br /> <span style="font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Zac Sawyer 2015</span></span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">'Pete as Dahoum'</span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Thomas Edward Lawrence CB DSO (16 August 1888 – 19 May 1935) was a British archaeologist, military officer, and diplomat.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">He was renowned for his liaison role during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign, and the Arab Revolt against Ottoman Turkish rule of 1916–18.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The breadth and variety of his activities and associations, and his ability to describe them vividly in writing, earned him international fame as Lawrence of Arabia - a title used for the 1962 film based on his First World War activities.</span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Thomas Edward Chapman ('Lawrence' also known as 'el Aurens' and later 'Shaw') was born out of wedlock in Tremadog, Wales, in August 1888 to Sir Thomas Chapman and Sarah Junner, a governess who was herself illegitimate.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Chapman had left his wife and first family in Ireland to live with Junner, and they called themselves Mr and Mrs Lawrence.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Sir Thomas Robert Tighe Chapman, 7th Baronet (6 November 1846 – 8 April 1919) was an Anglo-Irish landowner, the last of the Chapman baronets of Killua Castle in Ireland. For many years he lived under the name of Thomas Robert Lawrence, taking the name of his partner, Sarah Lawrence, the mother of his five sons. Born in 1846, the second of the three sons of William Chapman (1811–1889) and his wife Louisa, daughter of Colonel Arthur Vansittart (1775–1829), of Shottesbrook, and the grandson of Sir Thomas Chapman, 2nd Baronet, Chapman was educated at Eton College. He was brought up to lead the life of a country gentleman, at a house called South Hill, near the village of Delvin, County Westmeath, Ireland, a modest property of some 170 acres, and also at the family's town house in Dublin. The Chapman family belonged to the higher level of the Anglo-Irish landowning class and for generations its members had married into families of a similar standing in England and Ireland.</span></span></blockquote>
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In the summer of 1896 the Lawrences moved to Oxford, where in 1907–10 young Lawrence studied History at Jesus College and graduated with First Class Honours.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">He became a practicing archaeologist in the Middle East, working at various excavations with David George Hogarth and Leonard Woolley.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In 1908, he joined the Oxford University Officers' Training Corps and underwent a two-year training course.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In January 1914, before the outbreak of World War I, Lawrence was commissioned by the British Army to undertake a military survey of the Negev Desert while doing archaeological research.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence's public image resulted in part from the sensationalized reportage of the Arab revolt by an American journalist, Lowell Thomas, as well as from Lawrence's autobiographical account 'Seven Pillars of Wisdom' (1922).</span><br /><blockquote><span style="color: #f4cccc;">Lowell Jackson Thomas (April 6, 1892 – August 29, 1981) was an American writer, actor, broadcaster, and traveler, best remembered for publicizing T. E. Lawrence ('Lawrence of Arabia'). Thomas traveled to Palestine as an accredited war correspondent with the permission of the British Foreign Office. In Jerusalem, he met T. E. Lawrence, a captain in the British Army stationed in Jerusalem. Lawrence was spending £200,000 a month encouraging the inhabitants of Palestine to rebel against the Turks. Thomas and Chase spent several weeks with him in the desert, although Lawrence had told them that it would be 'several days'. Lawrence agreed to provide Thomas with material on the condition that Thomas also photograph and interview Arab leaders such as Emir Feisal. Thomas shot dramatic footage of Lawrence, then returned to America and began giving public lectures in 1919 on the war in Palestine, 'supported by moving pictures of veiled women, Arabs in their picturesque robes, camels and dashing Bedouin cavalry.'e Thomas later opened a series at Covent Garden in London on August 14, 1919.</span></blockquote>
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In 1935, Lawrence was fatally injured in a motorcycle accident in Dorset.</span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-family: times; font-size: x-large;">Early Life</span></span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence was born on 16 August 1888 in Tremadog, Caernarfonshire, Wales, in a house named Gorphwysfa, now known as Snowdon Lodge.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">His Anglo-Irish father, Thomas Robert Tighe Chapman, who in 1914 inherited the title of Westmeath in Ireland as seventh Baronet, had left his wife Edith for his daughters' governess Sarah Junner. Junner's mother, Elizabeth Junner, had named as Sarah's father a "John Junner – shipwright journeyman", though she had been living as an unmarried servant in the household of a John Lawrence, ship's carpenter, just four months earlier.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Thomas Chapman and Sarah Junner did not marry (?), but were known as Mr and Mrs Lawrence.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">They had five sons; Thomas Edward was the second eldest.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">From Wales the family moved to Kirkcudbright, Galloway, in southwestern Scotland, then Dinard in Brittany, then to Jersey.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In 1894–96 the family lived at Langley Lodge (now demolished), set in private woods between the eastern borders of the New Forest and Southampton Water in Hampshire.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Mr Lawrence (Chapman) sailed, and took the boys to watch yacht racing in the Solent.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">By the time they left, the eight-year-old 'Ned' (as Lawrence became known) had developed a taste for the countryside and outdoor activities.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In the summer of 1896 the Lawrences moved to 2, Polstead Road in Oxford, where, until 1921, they lived under the names of 'Mr and Mrs Lawrence'.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence attended the City of Oxford High School for Boys, where one of the four houses was later named "Lawrence" in his honour; the school closed in 1966.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence and one of his brothers became commissioned officers in the Church Lads' Brigade at St Aldate's Church.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence claimed that circa 1905, he ran away from home and served for a few weeks as a boy soldier with the Royal Garrison Artillery at St Mawes Castle in Cornwall, from which he was bought out. No evidence, however, of this appears in army records.</span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">'T. E. Lawrence as a cadet at Newporth Beach, near Falmouth'</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Henry Scott Tuke, RA RWS</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> <span style="color: #ea9999;">Henry Scott Tuke, RA RWS (12 June 1858 – 13 March 1929), was an English visual artist; primarily a painter, but also a photographer. His most notable work was in the Impressionist style, and he is probably best known for his paintings of nude boys and young men. </span></span><span style="color: #ea9999;"><br /><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> He has recently become something of a cult figure in 'gay' cultural circles, with lavish editions of his paintings published and his works fetching high prices at auctions.</span></span></blockquote>
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;"> At the age of 15, Lawrence and his schoolfriend Cyril Beeson bicycled around Berkshire, Buckinghamshire and Oxfordshire, visited almost every village's parish church, studied their monuments and antiquities, and made rubbings of their monumental brasses. </span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">Lawrence and Beeson monitored building sites in Oxford and presented their finds to the Ashmolean Museum.</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">The Ashmolean's Annual Report for 1906 said the two teenage boys "<i>by incessant watchfulness secured everything of antiquarian value which has been found</i>."</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">In the summers of 1906 and 1907, Lawrence and Beeson toured France by bicycle, collecting photographs, drawings, and measurements of medieval castles.</span></span><br />
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<span><span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif" style="font-family: georgia; font-size: x-large;">Oxford and Archaeology</span></span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">From 1907 to 1910, Lawrence studied History at Jesus College, Oxford.</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">In the summer of 1909, he set out alone on a three-month walking tour of crusader castles in Ottoman Syria, during which he travelled 1,000 mi (1,600 km) on foot.</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">Lawrence graduated with First Class Honours after submitting a thesis entitled 'The influence of the Crusades on European Military Architecture—to the end of the 12th century', based on his field research with Beeson in France, notably in Châlus, and his solo research in the Middle East.</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">On completing his degree in 1910, Lawrence commenced postgraduate research in medieval pottery with a Senior Demy, a form of scholarship, at Magdalen College, Oxford, which he abandoned after he was offered the opportunity to become a practising archaeologist in the Middle East, at Carchemish, in the expedition that D. G. Hogarth was setting up on behalf of the British Museum.</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">David George Hogarth (23 May 1862 – 6 November 1927) was a British archaeologist and scholar associated with T. E. Lawrence and Arthur Evans. Hogarth travelled to excavations in Cyprus, Crete, Egypt, Syria, Melos, and Ephesus (the Temple of Artemis). On the island of Crete, he excavated Zakros and Psychro Cave. Hogarth was named director of the British School at Athens in 1897 and occupied the position until 1900. He was the keeper of the Ashmolean Museum in Oxford from 1909 until his death in 1927. In 1915, during World War I, Hogarth joined the Geographical Section of the Naval Intelligence Division. He also was the acting director of the 'Arab Bureau' for a time during the war. Hogarth was close with T.E. Lawrence, and he worked closely with Lawrence to plan the Arab Revolt. From 1925 to 1927 he was President of the Royal Geographical Society.</span></span></span></blockquote>
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">Lawrence was a polyglot whose published work demonstrates competence in Ancient Greek, Arabic, and French.</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">In December 1910, he sailed for Beirut and on his arrival went to Jbail (Byblos), where he studied Arabic.</span></span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;"> </span></span><span><span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif" style="font-family: georgia; font-size: x-large;">Carchemish</span></span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">He then went to work on the excavations at Carchemish, near Jerablus in northern Syria, where he worked under Hogarth and R. Campbell Thompson of the British Museum.</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">He would later state that everything he had accomplished, he owed to Hogarth.</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">As the site lay near an important crossing on the Baghdad Railway, knowledge he gathered there was subsequently of considerable importance to the military.</span></span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-size: small;">While excavating at Carchemish, Lawrence met Gertrude Bell, who later worked with him on setting up the state of Iraq.</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: small;">Gertrude Margaret Lowthian Bell, CBE (14 July 1868 – 12 July 1926) was an English writer, traveller, political officer, administrator, spy and archaeologist who explored, mapped, and became highly influential to British imperial policy-making due to her knowledge and contacts, built up through extensive travels in Greater Syria, Mesopotamia, Asia Minor, and Arabia. Along with T. E. Lawrence, Bell helped establish the Hashemite dynasties in what is today Jordan as well as in Iraq. She played a major role in establishing and helping administer the modern state of Iraq, utilizing her unique perspective from her travels and relations with tribal leaders throughout the Middle East. During her lifetime she was highly esteemed and trusted by British officials and given an immense amount of power for a woman at the time. She has been described as "<i>one of the few representatives of His Majesty's Government remembered by the Arabs with anything resembling affection</i>".</span></span></span></blockquote>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">In late 1911, Lawrence returned to England for a brief stay.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">By November he was en route to Beirut for a second season at Carchemish, where he was to work with Leonard Woolley.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">Before resuming work there, however, he briefly worked with Flinders Petrie at Kafr Ammar in Egypt.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">Between the spring of 1912 and the autumn of 1913, Lawrence stayed at Carchemish for four excavation seasons, residing in a spacious excavation house, newly built inside the site by himself and Woolley on behalf of the British Museum.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">In January 1914, Woolley and Lawrence were co-opted by the British military as an archaeological 'smokescreen' for a British military survey of the Negev Desert.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">They were funded by the Palestine Exploration Fund to search for an area referred to in the Bible as the Wilderness of Zin.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">Along the way, they made an archaeological survey of the Negev Desert.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">The Negev was strategically important as, in the event of war, any Ottoman army attacking Egypt would have to cross it.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">Woolley and Lawrence subsequently published a report of the expedition's archaeological findings, but a more important result was an updated mapping of the area, with special attention to features of military relevance such as water sources.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">Lawrence also visited Aqaba and Petra.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">From March to May 1914, Lawrence worked again at Carchemish.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS", sans-serif">Following the outbreak of hostilities in August 1914, Lawrence did not immediately enlist in the British Army; on the advice of S. F. Newcombe he held back until October, when he was commissioned on the General List, and posted to the intelligence staff in Cairo.</span></div>
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif"><span style="font-family: georgia; font-size: x-large;">The Arab Revolt</span></span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">At the outbreak of the war Lawrence was a university post-graduate researcher who had for years traveled extensively within the Ottoman Empire provinces of the Levant (Transjordan and Palestine) and Mesopotamia (Syria and Iraq) under his own name.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">As such he had become known to the Ottoman Interior Ministry authorities, and their German technical advisers, travelling on the German-designed, built, and financed railways during the course of his research.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The 'Arab Bureau' of Britain's Foreign Office conceived a campaign of internal insurgency against the Ottoman Empire in the Middle East.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The 'Arab Bureau' had long felt it likely that a campaign instigated and financed by outside powers, supporting the breakaway-minded tribes and regional challengers to the Turkish government's centralized rule of their empire, would pay great dividends in the diversion of effort that would be needed to meet such a challenge.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The 'Arab Bureau' had recognized the strategic value of what is today called the "asymmetry" of such conflict.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The Ottoman authorities would have to devote from a hundred to a thousand times the resources to contain the threat of such an internal rebellion compared to the Allies' cost of sponsoring it.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">With his first-hand knowledge of Syria, the Levant, and Mesopotamia (not to mention having already worked as a part-time civilian army intelligence officer), on his formal enlistment in 1914 Lawrence was posted to Cairo on the Intelligence Staff of the GOC (General Officer Commanding) Middle East.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The British government in Egypt sent Lawrence to work with the Hashemite forces in the Arabian Hejaz in October 1916.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">There he met and worked with Herbert Garland.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">During the war, Lawrence fought alongside Arab irregular troops under the command of Emir Faisal, a son of Sharif Hussein of Mecca, in extended guerrilla operations against the armed forces of the Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence obtained assistance from the Royal Navy to turn back an Ottoman attack on Yenbo in December 1916.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence's major contribution to the revolt was convincing the Arab leaders (Faisal and Abdullah) to co-ordinate their actions in support of British strategy.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">He persuaded the Arabs not to make a frontal assault on the Ottoman stronghold in Medina but to allow the Turkish army to tie up troops in the city garrison.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The Arabs were then free to direct most of their attention to the Turks' weak point, the Hejaz railway that supplied the garrison.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">This vastly expanded the battlefield and tied up even more Ottoman troops, who were then forced to protect the railway and repair the constant damage.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence developed a close relationship with Faisal, whose Arab Northern Army was to become the main beneficiary of British aid.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">On January 3, 1917, Lawrence went off on his first desert raid with 35 armed tribesmen.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Under cover of darkness, they rode their camels out of camp, dismounted and scrambled up a steep hill overlooking a Turkish encampment, which they peppered with rifle fire until driven off.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Returning, they came across two Turks, and took them back to camp for questioning.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">That minor triumph was later counterbalanced by a small tragedy when, to prevent a crippling blood feud from breaking out, Lawrence had to personally execute a member of his own band, a deed that, it has been suggested, haunted him for the rest of his life.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">At the end of March, Lawrence set off on his first raid against the railway, a Turkish station at Abu el-Naam.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">After carefully reconnoitering it, Lawrence crept down to the lines at nightfall and laid a Garland mine under the tracks, cutting the telegraph wires as he left.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The next morning, the Bedouins overran the station with the aid of a mountain gun and a howitzer, setting several wagons of a nearby train on fire.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">As it steamed out of the station, Lawrence blew the mine under the front bogies, knocking it off the rails.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Although the Turks got the train rolling again, the operation was a success.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The attacks on the railway continued throughout 1917.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">During one, Lawrence blew up a locomotive with an electric mine.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In 1917, Lawrence arranged a joint action with the Arab irregulars and forces including Auda Abu Tayi (until then in the employ of the Ottomans) against the strategically located but lightly defended town of Aqaba.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">On 6 July, after a surprise overland attack, Aqaba fell to Lawrence and the Arab forces. </span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">After Aqaba, Lawrence was promoted to major, and the new commander-in-chief of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force, General Sir Edmund Allenby, agreed to his strategy for the revolt, stating after the war:</span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif" style="font-family: georgia; font-size: large;">"<i>I gave him a free hand. His cooperation was marked by the utmost loyalty, and I never had anything but praise for his work, which, indeed, was invaluable throughout the campaign. He was the mainspring of the Arab movement and knew their language, their manners and their mentality.</i>"</span></blockquote>
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<span style="color: #ea9999;"><span style="font-family: inherit;"><span>Field Marshal Edmund Henry Hynman Allenby, 1st Viscount </span><span>Allenby GCB, GCMG, GCVO (23 April 1861 – 14 May 1936) was an English soldier and British Imperial Governor. He fought in the Second Boer War, and also in World War I in which he led the British Empire's Egyptian Expeditionary Force (EEF)</span></span><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"> during the Sinai and Palestine Campaign in the conquest of Palestine capturing Beersheba, Jaffa and Jerusalem from October to December 1917. After occupying the Jordan Valley during the summer 1918, he went on to capture northern Palestine and defeat Yildirim Army Group's Eighth Army at the Battle of Megiddo, forcing the Fourth and Seventh Army to retreat towards Damascus. Subsequently the EEF Pursuit by Desert Mounted Corps captured Damascus and advanced into northern Syria. During this pursuit he commanded T. E. Lawrence, whose campaign with Faisal's Arab Sherifial Forces assisted the EEF's capture of Ottoman Empire territory and fought the Battle of Aleppo, five days before the Armistice of Mudros on 30 October 1918, ended the campaign. He continued to serve in the region as High Commissioner for Egypt and the Sudan from 1919 until 1925.</span></span></blockquote>
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence now held a powerful position, as an adviser to Faisal and a person who had Allenby's confidence.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In January 1918, Lawrence fought in the battle of Tafileh, an important region southeast of the Dead Sea, together with Arab regulars under the command of Jafar Pasha al-Askari.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The battle was a defensive engagement that turned into an offensive rout and was described in the official history of the war as a "<i>brilliant feat of arms</i>".</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for his leadership at Tafileh and was promoted to Lieutenant Colonel.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The battle took the lives of 400 Turks and captured more than 200 prisoners.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">By the summer of 1918, the Turks were offering a substantial reward for Lawrence's capture, with one officer writing in his notes:</span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif" style="font-family: georgia; font-size: large;">"<i>Though a price of £15,000 has been put on his head by the Turks, no Arab has, as yet, attempted to betray him. The Sharif of Mecca [King of the Hedjaz] has given him the status of one of his sons, and he is just the finely tempered steel that supports the whole structure of our influence in Arabia. He is a very inspiring gentleman adventurer.</i>"</span></blockquote>
<span><span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif" style="font-family: georgia; font-size: x-large;"> The Fall of Damascus</span></span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence was involved in the build-up to the capture of Damascus in the final weeks of the war.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Much to his disappointment, and contrary to instructions he had issued, he was not present at the city's formal surrender, having arrived several hours after the city had fallen. </span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Lawrence entered Damascus around 9am on 1 October 1918 but was only the third arrival of the day; the first was the 10th Australian Light Horse Brigade, led by Major A.C.N. 'Harry' Olden, who formally accepted the surrender of the city from acting Governor Emir Said.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In newly liberated Damascus - which he had envisaged as the capital of an Arab state - Lawrence was instrumental in establishing a provisional Arab government under Faisal.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The latter's rule as king, however, came to an abrupt end in 1920, after the battle of Maysaloun, when the French Forces of General Gouraud, under the command of General Mariano Goybet, entered Damascus, destroying Lawrence's dream of an independent Arabia.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">During the closing years of the war Lawrence sought, with mixed success, to convince his superiors in the British government that Arab independence was in their interests.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">The secret Sykes-Picot Agreement between France and Britain contradicted the promises of independence he had made to the Arabs and frustrated his work.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">In 1918, he co-operated with war correspondent Lowell Thomas for a short period.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">During this time Thomas and his cameraman Harry Chase shot a great deal of film and many photographs, which Thomas used in a highly lucrative film that toured the world after the war.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Thomas went to Jerusalem where he met Lawrence, whose enigmatic figure in Arab uniform fired his imagination.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">With Allenby's permission he linked up with Lawrence for a brief couple of weeks.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Returning to America, Thomas, early in 1919, started his lectures, supported by moving pictures of veiled women, Arabs in their picturesque robes, camels and dashing Bedouin cavalry, which took the nation by storm, after running at Madison Square Garden in New York.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">On being asked to come to England, he made the condition he would do so if asked by the King, and given Drury Lane or Covent Garden.</span><br />
<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">He opened at Covent Garden on 14 August 1919, and so followed a series of some hundreds of lecture—film shows, attended by the highest in the land.</span><br />
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<span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">'T. E. Lawrence as a cadet at Newporth Beach, near Falmouth'</span></div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><span face=""Trebuchet MS",sans-serif">Henry Scott Tuke, RA RWS</span></span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999;"><span style="font-family: arial; font-size: large;">The above painting, by Henry Scott Tuke hangs in Clouds Hill, the final home of T.E. Lawrence (aka 'Lawrence of Arabia'). It's an inoffensive image. A young man, apparently Lawrence, ties his puttees as a naked boy swims in the rock pool beyond. There's a gentle dichotomy between freedom and service. It's a fitting emblem for Lawrence's life and the questions that remain unanswered nearly 80 years after his death. The manifest homoeroticism within the picture - lessened when Tuke painted clothes on the 'Lawrence' figure - points to one of the major riddles of Lawrence's life - his homosexuality, his sadomasochistic tendencies, and his intense relationship with young 'Dahoum'. Here, then, is a man who was resolutely masculine, central to our current understanding of the Middle East (albeit flawed) and emblematic of a poetry now seemingly missing from diplomatic and military life.</span></span></blockquote>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-73335408224882031752015-07-29T03:13:00.001-07:002015-08-06T12:52:52.112-07:00Rudyard Kipling - Poet of Empire<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">RUDYARD KIPLING - POET OF EMPIRE</span></span><br />
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<i><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">'Four things greater than all things are -</span></span></i></div>
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<i><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Women, and horses, and power, and war...'</span></span></i></div>
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J R Kilplimg</div>
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Kipling was one of the most popular writers in England, in both prose and verse, in the late 19th and early 20th centuries.<br />
In 1907, he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature, making him the first English-language writer to receive the prize, and its youngest recipient to date.<br />
Among other honours, he was sounded out for the British Poet Laureateship and on several occasions for a knighthood, all of which he declined.<br />
Kipling's subsequent reputation has changed according to the political and social climate of the age and the resulting contrasting views about him continued for much of the 20th century.<br />
George Orwell called him a "prophet of British imperialism".<br />
Kipling, however, is still an author who can inspire passionate disagreement and his place in literary and cultural history is far from settled.<br />
As the age of the European empires recedes, he is now, however, recognised as an incomparable, if controversial, interpreter of how empire was experienced, and there is an increasing recognition of his extraordinary narrative gifts.</div>
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Kipling's works of fiction include 'The Jungle Book' (1894), Kim (1901), and many short stories, including 'The Man Who Would Be King' (1888).</div>
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His poems include 'Mandalay' (1890), 'Gunga Din' (1890), 'The Gods of the Copybook Headings' (1919), 'The White Man's Burden' (1899), and 'If' (1910)</div>
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He is regarded as a major innovator in the art of the short story; his children's books are classics of children's literature; exhibiting a versatile and luminous narrative gift.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> 'IF'</span></div>
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<i> If you can keep your head when all about you <br /> Are losing theirs and blaming it on you, <br />If you can trust yourself when all men doubt you,<br /> But make allowance for their doubting too; <br />If you can wait and not be tired by waiting,<br /> Or being lied about, don’t deal in lies,<br />Or being hated, don’t give way to hating,<br /> And yet don’t look too good, nor talk too wise:<br /><br />If you can dream - and not make dreams your master; <br /> If you can think - and not make thoughts your aim; <br />If you can meet with Triumph and Disaster<br /> And treat those two impostors just the same; <br />If you can bear to hear the truth you’ve spoken<br /> Twisted by knaves to make a trap for fools,<br />Or watch the things you gave your life to, broken,<br /> And stoop and build ’em up with worn-out tools:<br /><br />If you can make one heap of all your winnings<br /> And risk it on one turn of pitch-and-toss,<br />And lose, and start again at your beginnings<br /> And never breathe a word about your loss;<br />If you can force your heart and nerve and sinew<br /> To serve your turn long after they are gone, <br />And so hold on when there is nothing in you<br /> Except the Will which says to them: ‘Hold on !’<br /><br />If you can talk with crowds and keep your virtue, <br /> Or walk with Kings - nor lose the common touch,<br />If neither foes nor loving friends can hurt you,<br /> If all men count with you, but none too much;<br />If you can fill the unforgiving minute<br /> With sixty seconds’ worth of distance run, <br />Yours is the Earth and everything that’s in it, <br /> And - which is more - you’ll be a Man, my son !</i></div>
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Rudyard Kipling</div>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Childhood (1865–1882)</span><br />
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Rudyard Kipling was born on 30 December 1865 in Bombay, in the Bombay Presidency of British India, to Alice Kipling (née MacDonald) and John Lockwood Kipling.<br />
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Alice (one of four remarkable Victorian sisters) was a vivacious woman about whom Lord Dufferin would say, "<i>Dullness and Mrs. Kipling cannot exist in the same room</i>."<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Alice Kipling</td></tr>
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Lockwood Kipling, a sculptor and pottery designer, was the Principal and Professor of Architectural Sculpture at the newly founded Sir Jamsetjee Jeejebhoy School of Art in Bombay.<br />
John Lockwood and Alice had met in 1863 and courted at Rudyard Lake in Rudyard, Staffordshire, England.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-size: large;">Lockwood Kipling</span></span></span></blockquote>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lockwood and Rudyard Kipling</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;">John Lockwood Kipling, C.I.E.[1] (6 July 1837 – 26 January 1911) was an English art teacher, illustrator, and museum curator, who spent most of his career in British India. He was the father of the author Rudyard Kipling.</span></span></blockquote>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kim's Gun</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;">In 1875, Kipling was appointed the Principal of Mayo School of Arts, Lahore, British India, and also became curator of the old original Lahore Museum which figured as the 'Wonder House' or 'Ajaib Ghar' in 'Kim', not to be confused with the present one built later on after he had retired back to England in 1893. Kipling illustrated many of Rudyard Kipling's books, and other works, including Tales of the Punjab by Flora Annie Steel. He also worked on the decorations for the Victoria and Albert Museum in London and friezes on the Crawford Market in Bombay. John Kipling designed the uniforms and decorations for the Imperial Assemblage at Delhi in 1877, organized by the Viceroy of India, Lord Lytton, at which Queen Victoria was proclaimed Empress of India.</span></span></blockquote>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Durbar Room - Osborne House</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;">During his tenure as the Principal of the Mayo School of Art, Lahore he patronised indigenous artisans and through training and apprenticeship transformed them into craftsmen and designers. One of his protégés was Bhai Ram Sing, who assisted him in his imperial commission for decorating the Durbar Room at Osborne House. Kipling also remained editor of the Journal of Indian Art and Industry, which carried drawings made by the students of the Mayo School.<br />He died in 1911, and is buried in the parish of Tisbury, Wiltshire.</span></span></blockquote>
Lockwood and Alice married, and moved to India in 1865.<br />
They had been so moved by the beauty of the Rudyard Lake area that when their first child was born they referenced it when naming him.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Alice's sister Georgiana was married to painter Edward Burne-Jones, and her sister Agnes was married to painter Edward Poynter.<br />
Kipling's most famous relative was his first cousin, Stanley Baldwin, who was Conservative Prime Minister of the UK three times in the 1920s and 1930s.<br />
Kipling’s parents considered themselves Anglo-Indians (a term used in the 19th century for people of British origin living in India - and not as now, of people of mixed race) and so too would their son, though he spent the bulk of his life elsewhere<br />
Complex issues of identity and national allegiance would become prominent features in his fiction.<br />
Kipling referred to such conflicts; for example:</div>
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"<i>In the afternoon heats before we took our sleep, she (the Portuguese ayah, or nanny) or Meeta (the Hindu bearer, or male attendant) would tell us stories and Indian nursery songs all unforgotten, and we were sent into the dining-room after we had been dressed, with the caution 'Speak English now to Papa and Mamma.' So one spoke 'English', haltingly translated out of the vernacular idiom that one thought and dreamed in</i>".</blockquote>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Education in Britain</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-q-OQt03jzl0/Vbs14JTt18I/AAAAAAAAboY/FrFkQ5mEQ6M/s1600/Kipling%2Bas%2Ba%2BBoy%2B-%2BRudyard%2BKipling%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-q-OQt03jzl0/Vbs14JTt18I/AAAAAAAAboY/FrFkQ5mEQ6M/s200/Kipling%2Bas%2Ba%2BBoy%2B-%2BRudyard%2BKipling%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rudyard Kipling as a Boy</td></tr>
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Kipling's days of <i>"strong light and darkness</i>" in Bombay ended when he was five years old.</div>
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As was the custom in British India, he and his three-year-old sister Alice ("Trix") were taken to England - in their case to Southsea, Portsmouth - to live with a couple who boarded children of British nationals who were serving in India.</div>
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For the next six years, from October 1871 to April 1877, the two children lived with the couple, Captain Pryse Agar Holloway, once an officer in the merchant navy, and Mrs Sarah Holloway, at their house, Lorne Lodge at 4 Campbell Road, Southsea.<br />
In his autobiography, published some 65 years later, Kipling recalled the stay with horror, and wondered ironically if the combination of cruelty and neglect which he experienced there at the hands of Mrs. Holloway might not have hastened the onset of his literary life: </div>
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<i>"If you cross-examine a child of seven or eight on his day’s doings (specially when he wants to go to sleep) he will contradict himself very satisfactorily. If each contradiction be set down as a lie and retailed at breakfast, life is not easy. I have known a certain amount of bullying, but this was calculated torture—religious as well as scientific. Yet it made me give attention to the lies I soon found it necessary to tell: and this, I presume, is the foundation of literary effort</i>".</blockquote>
In January 1878, Kipling was admitted to the United Services College at Westward Ho!, Devon, a school founded a few years earlier to prepare boys for the British Army.</div>
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The school proved rough going for him at first, but later led to firm friendships, and provided the setting for his schoolboy stories 'Stalky & Co'. (1899).</div>
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During his time there, Kipling also met and fell in love with Florence Garrard, who was boarding with Trix at Southsea (to which Trix had returned).</div>
<div>
Florence was to become the model for Maisie in Kipling's first novel, 'The Light that Failed' (1891).<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">Return to India</span><br />
<br />
Near the end of his time at the school, it was decided that he lacked the academic ability to get into Oxford University on a scholarship, and his parents lacked the wherewithal to finance him (more to the point), so Lockwood obtained a job for his son in Lahore, Punjab (now in Pakistan), where he was Principal of the Mayo College of Art and Curator of the Lahore Museum (made famous in the opening chapter of 'Kim').<br />
Kipling was to be assistant editor of a small local newspaper, the Civil & Military Gazette.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Masjid Wazir Khan - Lahore</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lahore</td></tr>
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He sailed for India on 20 September 1882 and arrived in Bombay on 18 October.<br />
He described this moment years later:<br />
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<i>"So, at sixteen years and nine months, but looking four or five years older, and adorned with real whiskers which the scandalised Mother abolished within one hour of beholding, I found myself at Bombay where I was born, moving among sights and smells that made me deliver in the vernacular sentences whose meaning I knew not. Other Indian-born boys have told me how the same thing happened to them."</i></blockquote>
This arrival changed Kipling, as he explains:<br />
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<i>"There were yet three or four days’ rail to Lahore, where my people lived. After these, my English years fell away, nor ever, I think, came back in full strength".</i></blockquote>
He describes this time:<br />
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<i>"My month’s leave at Simla</i> (see below),<i> or whatever Hill Station my people went to, was pure joy - every golden hour counted. It began in heat and discomfort, by rail and road. It ended in the cool evening, with a wood fire in one’s bedroom, and next morn - thirty more of them ahead ! - the early cup of tea, the Mother who brought it in, and the long talks of us all together again. One had leisure to work, too, at whatever play-work was in one’s head, and that was usually full."</i></blockquote>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1iTt3COkXps/VbyTsDvgA8I/AAAAAAAAb3A/Kd2Nxs1Q9UA/s1600/Kipling%2527s%2BHouse%2Bin%2BLahore%2B-%2B%2BRudyard%2BKipling%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="182" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1iTt3COkXps/VbyTsDvgA8I/AAAAAAAAb3A/Kd2Nxs1Q9UA/s320/Kipling%2527s%2BHouse%2Bin%2BLahore%2B-%2B%2BRudyard%2BKipling%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kipling's House in Lahore</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lahore</td></tr>
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Back in Lahore, some thirty-nine stories appeared in the Gazette between November 1886 and June 1887.<br />
Kipling included most of these stories in beautifully entitled 'Plain Tales from the Hills' (see below for the meaning of this title), his first prose collection, which was published in Calcutta in January 1888, a month after his 22nd birthday.<br />
Kipling's time in Lahore, however, had come to an end.<br />
In November 1887, he was transferred to the Gazette's much larger sister newspaper, The Pioneer, in Allahabad in the United Provinces.<br />
Kipling's writing continued at a frenetic pace; in 1888, he published six collections of short stories: 'Soldiers Three', 'The Story of the Gadsbys', 'In Black and White', 'Under the Deodars', and the spooky 'The Phantom Rickshaw', containing a total of 41 stories, some quite long.<br />
In addition, as The Pioneer's special correspondent in the western region of Rajputana, he wrote many sketches that were later collected in 'Letters of Marque' and published in 'From Sea to Sea' and 'Other Sketches, Letters of Travel'.<br />
Kipling was discharged from The Pioneer in early 1889, after a dispute with the owners.<br />
By this time, he had been increasingly thinking about the future.<br />
He sold the rights to his six volumes of stories for £200 and a small royalty, and the 'Plain Tales' for £50; in addition, from The Pioneer, he received six-months' salary in lieu of notice.<br />
Many of Kipling's stories are set in Simla, in the hill country - where he would spend the Summer months away from the heat of the plain - hence 'Plain Tales from the Hills'.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">Simla</span></span></span></blockquote>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-nL5B8_KGz2g/VbyOa5G1vwI/AAAAAAAAb1Q/zL75KFDY7S0/s1600/Simla%2B-%2B%2BRudyard%2BKipling%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="120" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-nL5B8_KGz2g/VbyOa5G1vwI/AAAAAAAAb1Q/zL75KFDY7S0/s200/Simla%2B-%2B%2BRudyard%2BKipling%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">In 1863, the Viceroy of India John Lawrence decided to shift the summer capital of the British Raj to Simla. He took the trouble of moving the administration twice a year between Calcutta and this separate centre over 1,000 miles away, despite the fact that it was difficult to reach. Lord Lytton (Viceroy of India 1876–1880) made efforts to plan the town from 1876, when he first stayed in a rented house, but began plans for a Viceregal Lodge, later built on Observatory Hill. A fire cleared much of the area where the native Indian population lived (the "Upper Bazaar"), and the planning of the eastern end to become the centre of the European town forced these to live in the Middle and Lower Bazaars on the lower terraces descending the steep slopes from the Ridge. The Upper Bazaar was cleared for a Town Hall, with many facilities such as library and theatre, as well as offices - for police and military volunteers as well as municipal administration. During the "Hot Weather", Simla was also the Headquarters of the Commander-in-Chief, India, the head of the Indian Army, and many Departments of the Government. The summer capital of the regional Government of the Punjab moved from Murree to Simla in 1876.</span></span></blockquote>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0XiFHCYkrNs/VbyOTPQFYdI/AAAAAAAAb1Q/v_jWj3lViag/s1600/Skating%2Bat%2BSimla%2B-%2B%2BRudyard%2BKipling%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="146" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0XiFHCYkrNs/VbyOTPQFYdI/AAAAAAAAb1Q/v_jWj3lViag/s200/Skating%2Bat%2BSimla%2B-%2B%2BRudyard%2BKipling%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="200" /></a></div>
<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">They were joined by many of the British wives and daughters of the men who remained on the plains. Together these formed Simla Society, which was as close as British India ever came to having an upper crust. This may have been helped by the fact that it was very expensive, having an ideal climate and thus being desirable, as well as having limited accommodation. British soldiers, merchants, and civil servants moved here each year to escape from the heat during summer in the Indo-Gangetic plain. British Shimla extended about a mile and a half along the ridge between Jakhoo Hill and Prospect Hill. The central spine was The Mall, which ran along the length of the ridge, with a Mall Extension southwards, closed to all carriages except those of the Viceroy and his wife. The presence of many bachelors and unattached men, as well as the many women passing the hot weather there, gave Shimla a reputation for adultery, and at least gossip about adultery: as Rudyard Kipling said in a letter cited by Allen, it had a reputation for "frivolity, gossip and intrigue".</span></span></blockquote>
</div>
<span style="font-size: large;"> Return to London</span><br />
<br />
He decided to use this money to make his way to London, the literary centre of the British Empire.<br />
On 9 March 1889, Kipling left India, travelling first to San Francisco via Rangoon, Singapore, Hong Kong, and Japan.<br />
He then travelled through the United States, writing articles for The Pioneer that were later published in 'From Sea to Sea and Other Sketches, Letters of Travel'.<br />
Starting his American travels in San Francisco, Kipling journeyed north to Portland, Oregon; to Seattle, Washington; up into Canada, to Victoria and Vancouver, British Columbia; back into the U.S. to Yellowstone National Park; down to Salt Lake City; then east to Omaha, Nebraska, and on to Chicago, Illinois; then to Beaver, Pennsylvania on the Ohio River to visit the Hill family; from there, he went to Chautauqua with Professor Hill, and later to Niagara Falls, Toronto, Washington, D.C., New York, and Boston.<br />
In the course of this journey, he met Mark Twain in Elmira, New York, and was deeply impressed.<br />
He then crossed the Atlantic, and reached Liverpool in October 1889.<br />
He soon made his début in the London literary world - to great acclaim.<br />
In London, Kipling had several stories accepted by magazines.<br />
He also found a place to live for the next two years at Villiers street, near Charing cross (the building was subsequently named Kipling House):<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>"Meantime, I had found me quarters in Villiers Street, Strand, which forty-six years ago was primitive and passionate in its habits and population. My rooms were small, not over-clean or well-kept, but from my desk I could look out of my window through the fanlight of Gatti’s Music-Hall entrance, across the street, almost on to its stage. The Charing Cross trains rumbled through my dreams on one side, the boom of the Strand on the other, while, before my windows, Father Thames under the Shot Tower walked up and down with his traffic."</i></blockquote>
In the next two years, he published a novel, 'The Light that Failed', had a nervous breakdown, and met an American writer and publishing agent, Wolcott Balestier, with whom he collaborated on a novel, 'The Naulahka' (a title which he uncharacteristically misspelt).<br />
In 1891, on the advice of his doctors, Kipling embarked on another sea voyage visiting South Africa, Australia, New Zealand, and once again India.<br />
He cut short his plans for spending Christmas with his family in India when he heard of Balestier's sudden death from typhoid fever, and immediately decided to return to London.<br />
Before his return, he had used the telegram to propose to and be accepted by Wolcott's sister Caroline Starr Balestier (1862–1939), called "Carrie", whom he had met a year earlier, and with whom he had apparently been having an intermittent romance.<br />
Meanwhile, late in 1891, his collection of short stories about the British in India, 'Life's Handicap', was published in London.<br />
On 18 January 1892, Carrie Balestier (aged 29) and Rudyard Kipling (aged 26) were married in London.<br />
The wedding was held at All Souls Church, Langham Place. Henry James gave the bride away.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">United States</span><br />
The couple settled upon a honeymoon that would take them first to the United States (including a stop at the Balestier family estate near Brattleboro, Vermont) and then on to Japan.<br />
When they arrived in Yokohama, Japan, they discovered that their bank, The New Oriental Banking Corporation, had failed.<br />
Taking this loss in their stride, they returned to the U.S., back to Vermont - Carrie by this time was pregnant with their first child - and rented a small cottage on a farm near Brattleboro for ten dollars a month.<br />
According to Kipling,<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>"We furnished it with a simplicity that fore-ran the hire-purchase system. We bought, second or third hand, a huge, hot-air stove which we installed in the cellar. We cut generous holes in our thin floors for its eight-inch tin pipes (why we were not burned in our beds each week of the winter I never can understand) and we were extraordinarily and self-centredly content."</i></blockquote>
In this house, which they called 'Bliss Cottage', their first child, Josephine, was born "<i>in three foot of snow on the night of 29 December 1892. Her Mother’s birthday being the 31st and mine the 30th of the same month, we congratulated her on her sense of the fitness of things ...</i>"<br />
<br />
It was also in this cottage that the first dawnings of the 'Jungle Books' came to Kipling:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>" . . workroom in the Bliss Cottage was seven feet by eight, and from December to April the snow lay level with its window-sill. It chanced that I had written a tale about Indian Forestry work which included a boy who had been brought up by wolves. In the stillness, and suspense, of the winter of ’92 some memory of the Masonic Lions of my childhood’s magazine, and a phrase in Haggard’s Nada the Lily, combined with the echo of this tale. After blocking out the main idea in my head, the pen took charge, and I watched it begin to write stories about Mowgli and animals, which later grew into the two Jungle Books "</i>.</blockquote>
With Josephine's arrival, Bliss Cottage was felt to be congested, so
eventually the couple bought land - 10 acres (40,000 m2) on a rocky
hillside overlooking the Connecticut River - from Carrie's brother Beatty
Balestier, and built their own house.<br />
Kipling named the house 'Naulakha', in honour of Wolcott and of their collaboration, and this time the name was spelled correctly.<br />
From his early years in Lahore (1882–87), Kipling had become enamored with the Mughal architecture, especially the Naulakha pavilion situated in Lahore Fort, which eventually became an inspiration for the title of his novel as well as the house.<br />
The house still stands on Kipling Road, three miles (5 km) north of Brattleboro in Dummerston, Vermont: a big, secluded, dark-green house, with shingled roof and sides, which Kipling called his "<i>ship</i>", and which brought him <i>"sunshine and a mind at ease.</i>"<br />
His seclusion in Vermont, combined with his healthy "sane clean life", made Kipling both inventive and prolific.<br />
Gilt title of the 1890 first American edition of 'Departmental Ditties' and 'Barrack Room Ballads', which contained 'Mandalay' and 'Gunga Din'.<br />
In the short span of four years, he produced, in addition to the Jungle Books, a collection of short stories ('The Day's Work'), a novel ('Captains Courageous'), and a profusion of poetry, including the volume 'The Seven Seas'.<br />
The collection of 'Barrack-Room Ballad's was issued in March 1892, first published individually for the most part in 1890, and containing his poems 'Mandalay' and 'Gunga Din'.<br />
He especially enjoyed writing the Jungle Books - both masterpieces of imaginative writing - and enjoyed, too, corresponding with the many children who wrote to him about them.<br />
The writing life in 'Naulakha' was occasionally interrupted by visitors, including his father, who visited soon after his retirement in 1893, and British writer Arthur Conan Doyle, who brought his golf-clubs, stayed for two days, and gave Kipling an extended golf lesson.<br />
Kipling seemed to take to golf, occasionally practising with the local Congregational minister, and even playing with red-painted balls when the ground was covered in snow.<br />
However, wintertime golf was "<i>not altogether a success because there were no limits to a drive; the ball might skid two miles down the long slope to Connecticut river.</i>"<br />
From all accounts, Kipling loved the outdoors, not least of whose marvels in Vermont was the turning of the leaves each fall.<br />
He described this moment in a letter:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>"A little maple began it, flaming blood-red of a sudden where he stood against the dark green of a pine-belt. Next morning there was an answering signal from the swamp where the sumacs grow. Three days later, the hill-sides as fast as the eye could range were afire, and the roads paved, with crimson and gold. Then a wet wind blew, and ruined all the uniforms of that gorgeous army; and the oaks, who had held themselves in reserve, buckled on their dull and bronzed cuirasses and stood it out stiffly to the last blown leaf, till nothing remained but pencil-shadings of bare boughs, and one could see into the most private heart of the woods."</i></blockquote>
The Kipling's first daughter Josephine, 1895. She died of pneumonia in 1899 aged 6.<br />
In February 1896, Elsie Kipling was born, the couple's second daughter.<br />
By this time, according to several biographers, their marital relationship was no longer light-hearted and spontaneous.<br />
Although they would always remain loyal to each other, they seemed now to have fallen into set roles.<br />
In a letter to a friend who had become engaged around this time, the 30 year old Kipling offered this sombre counsel: marriage principally taught "<i>the tougher virtues - such as humility, restraint, order, and forethought.</i>"<br />
The Kiplings loved life in Vermont and might have lived out their lives there, were it not for two incidents - one of global politics, the other of family discord - that hastily ended their time there.<br />
By the early 1890s, the United Kingdom and Venezuela were in a border dispute involving British Guiana.<br />
The U.S. had made several offers to arbitrate, but in 1895 the new American Secretary of State Richard Olney upped the ante by arguing for the American "<i>right</i>" to arbitrate on grounds of sovereignty on the continent (see the Olney interpretation as an extension of the 'Monroe Doctrine').<br />
This raised hackles in the UK, and the situation grew into a major Anglo-American crisis, with talk of war on both sides.<br />
Although the crisis led to greater U.S.-British cooperation, at the time Kipling was bewildered by what he felt was persistent anti-British sentiment in the U.S., especially in the press.<br />
He wrote in a letter that it felt like being <i>"aimed at with a decanter across a friendly dinner table</i>."<br />
By January 1896, he had decided to end his family's "<i>good wholesome life</i>" in the U.S., and seek their fortunes elsewhere.<br />
A family dispute became the final straw.<br />
For some time, relations between Carrie and her brother Beatty Balestier had been strained, owing to his drinking and insolvency.<br />
In May 1896, an inebriated Beatty encountered Kipling on the street and threatened him with physical harm.<br />
The incident led to Beatty's eventual arrest, but in the subsequent hearing, and the resulting publicity, Kipling's privacy was destroyed, and he was left feeling miserable and exhausted.<br />
In July 1896, a week before the hearing was to resume, the Kiplings packed their belongings, left the United States, and returned to England.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: #f4cccc; font-size: large;">'The Jungle Book'</span></span><br />
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<span style="color: #f4cccc; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">'The Jungle Book' stories were first published in magazines in 1893–94. The original publications contain illustrations, some by Rudyard's father, John Lockwood Kipling. These stories were written when Kipling lived in Vermont (see above). There is evidence that it was written for his daughter Josephine, who died in 1899 aged six, after a rare first edition of the book with a poignant handwritten note by the author to his young daughter was discovered at the National Trust's Wimpole Hall in Cambridgeshire in 2010.</span></blockquote>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2zTZA7A1ILE/VbpSIJaRNnI/AAAAAAAAbnw/tNH5udHIlCM/s1600/Kipling%2B-%2BJungle%2BBook%2B-%2BMowgli%2BII%2B-%2Bpierre-joubert.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2zTZA7A1ILE/VbpSIJaRNnI/AAAAAAAAbnw/tNH5udHIlCM/s200/Kipling%2B-%2BJungle%2BBook%2B-%2BMowgli%2BII%2B-%2Bpierre-joubert.png" width="152" /></a></div>
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-GBFwaazoK0c/VbpRoPSMa7I/AAAAAAAAbno/LykI-sOFbks/s1600/Kipling%2B-%2BJungle%2BBook%2B-%2BMowgli%2B-%2Bpierre-joubert.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-GBFwaazoK0c/VbpRoPSMa7I/AAAAAAAAbno/LykI-sOFbks/s200/Kipling%2B-%2BJungle%2BBook%2B-%2BMowgli%2B-%2Bpierre-joubert.png" width="143" /></a><span style="color: #f4cccc; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The tales in the book (and also those in 'The Second Jungle Book' which followed in 1895, and which includes five further stories about Mowgli) are fables, using animals in an anthropomorphic manner to give moral lessons. The verses of 'The Law of the Jungle', for example, lay down rules for the safety of individuals, families and communities. Kipling put in them nearly everything he knew or "heard or dreamed about the Indian jungle." The best-known of the stories are the three stories revolving around the adventures of an abandoned "man cub" Mowgli who is raised by wolves in the Indian jungle. The most famous of the other four stories are probably "Rikki-Tikki-Tavi", the story of a heroic mongoose, and "Toomai of the Elephants", the tale of a young elephant-handler. As with much of Kipling's work, each of the stories is preceded by a piece of verse, and succeeded by another. </span><br />
<span style="color: #f4cccc; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Jungle Book, because of its moral tone, came to be used as a motivational book by the Cub Scouts, a junior element of the Scouting movement. This use of the book's universe was approved by Kipling after a direct petition of Robert Baden-Powell, founder of the Scouting movement, who had originally asked for the author's permission for the use of the 'Memory Game' from 'Kim' (see below) in his scheme to develop the morale and fitness of working-class youths in cities. 'Akela', the head wolf in 'The Jungle Book', has become a senior figure in the movement, the name being traditionally adopted by the leader of each Cub Scout pack.</span></blockquote>
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<span style="font-size: large;">Devon</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Kipling Family</td></tr>
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By September 1896, the Kiplings were in Torquay, Devon, on the southwestern coast of England, in a hillside home overlooking the English Channel.<br />
Although Kipling did not much care for his new house, whose design, he claimed, left its occupants feeling dispirited and gloomy, he managed to remain productive and socially active.<br />
Kipling was now a famous man, and in the previous two or three years, had increasingly been making political pronouncements in his writings.<br />
The Kiplings had welcomed their first son, John, in August 1897.<br />
Kipling had begun work on two important poems, 'Recessional' (1897) and 'The White Man's Burden' (1899).<br />
Many who read the poems saw irony in the warnings regarding the perils of empire.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<i>Take up the White Man's burden - <br />Send forth the best ye breed - <br />Go, bind your sons to exile<br />To serve your captives' need;<br />To wait, in heavy harness,<br />On fluttered folk and wild - <br />Your new-caught sullen peoples,<br />Half devil and half child.</i></div>
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'The White Man's Burden'</div>
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There was also foreboding in the poems, a sense that all could yet come to naught.<br />
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<i>Far-called, our navies melt away;<br />On dune and headland sinks the fire:<br />Lo, all our pomp of yesterday<br />Is one with Nineveh and Tyre!<br />Judge of the Nations, spare us yet.<br />Lest we forget—lest we forget!</i></div>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<i> '</i>Recessional'</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
A prolific writer during his time in Torquay, he also wrote 'Stalky & Co.', a collection of school stories (born of his experience at the United Services College in Westward Ho!), whose juvenile protagonists displayed a know-it-all, cynical outlook on patriotism and authority.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Visits to South Africa</span><br />
<br />
In early 1898 the Kiplings travelled to South Africa for their winter holiday, thus beginning an annual tradition which (excepting the following year) was to last until 1908.<br />
They always stayed in "The Woolsack", a house on Cecil Rhodes' estate at Groote Schuur - it was within walking distance of Rhodes' mansion.<br />
With his new reputation as 'Poet of the Empire', Kipling was warmly received by some of the most influential politicians of the Cape Colony, including Rhodes, Sir Alfred Milner, and Leander Starr Jameson.<br />
Kipling cultivated their friendship, and came to admire the men and their politics.<br />
The period 1898–1910 was crucial in the history of South Africa and included the Second Boer War (1899–1902), the ensuing peace treaty, and the 1910 formation of the Union of South Africa.<br />
Back in England, Kipling wrote poetry in support of the British cause in the Boer War and on his next visit to South Africa in early 1900, he became a correspondent for The Friend newspaper in Bloemfontein, which had been commandeered by Lord Roberts for British troops.<br />
Although his journalistic stint was to last only two weeks, it was Kipling's first work on a newspaper staff since he left The Pioneer in Allahabad more than ten years earlier.<br />
At The Friend he made lifelong friendships with Perceval Landon, H. A. Gwynne and others.<br />
He also wrote articles published more widely expressing his views on the conflict.<br />
Kipling penned an inscription for the Honoured Dead Memorial (Siege memorial) in Kimberley.<br />
During this period Kipling travelled throughout South Africa, and told stories of these places through his poetry, such as the well known poem 'Lichtenberg', which relates the story of a combatant and his journey towards death in a foreign land.<br />
Trooper Aberline’s sacrifice was to have an impact on the Boers and his legacy went far beyond his rusting cross in the Lichtenburg cemetery which lies close to that of Edith Mathews.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> Sussex</span><br />
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In 1897, Kipling moved from Torquay to Rottingdean, East Sussex; first to North End House and later to The Elms.<br />
In 1902 Kipling bought 'Bateman's', a house built in 1634 and located in rural Burwash, East Sussex, England. Bateman's was Kipling's home from 1902 until his death in 1936.<br />
The house, along with the surrounding buildings, the mill and 33 acres (130,000 m2) was purchased for £9,300.<br />
It had no bathroom, no running water upstairs and no electricity, and even today is a very depressing spot, but Kipling loved it:<br />
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
<i>"Behold us, lawful owners of a grey stone lichened house—A.D. 1634 over the door—beamed, panelled, with old oak staircase, and all untouched and unfaked. It is a good and peaceable place. We have loved it ever since our first sight of it."</i> </blockquote>
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(from a November 1902 letter).</blockquote>
In the non-fiction realm he became involved in the debate over the British response to the rise in German naval power known as the 'Tirpitz Plan' to build a fleet to challenge the Royal Navy, publishing a series of articles in 1898 which were collected as 'A Fleet in Being'.<br />
On a visit to the United States in 1899, Kipling and Josephine developed pneumonia, from which she eventually died.<br />
In the wake of his daughter's death, Kipling concentrated on collecting material for what would become 'Just So Stories'.<br />
That work was published in 1902, the year after what is probably Kipling's most famous book, 'Kim', was first issued.<br />
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<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: large;">'Kim' <span style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Verdana,sans-serif;">- open images in new tab to view full size</span></span></span></span></blockquote>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kim</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">'Kim' was first published serially in McClure's Magazine from December 1900 to October 1901 as well as in Cassell's Magazine from January to November 1901, and first published in book form by Macmillan & Co. Ltd in October 1901. The story unfolds against the backdrop of the so-called 'The Great Game', the political conflict between Russia and Britain in Central Asia. It is set after the Second Afghan War which ended in 1881, but before the Third, probably in the period 1893 to 1898.</span></span></blockquote>
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<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">The novel is notable for its highly detailed portrait of the people, culture, and varied religions of India.</span></span> </blockquote>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright </span><i style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Zac</i><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"> Sawyer 2015</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">The book presents a vivid picture of India, its teeming populations, religions, and superstitions, and the life of the bazaars and the road. </span></span><span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">In 1998, the Modern Library ranked Kim No. 78 on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 2003 the book was listed on the BBC's</span></span> </blockquote>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright </span><i style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Zac</i><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"> Sawyer 2015</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f4cccc;"><span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif;">'The Big Read' poll of the UK's "<i>best-loved novel</i>." Considered by many to be Kipling's masterpiece, opinion appears varied about its consideration as children's literature or not. Kim is in some ways an apotheosis of the Victorian 'cult of childhood', as epitomized in Barrie's 'Pete Pan', but it shines now as bright as ever, long after the collapse of the Indian Raj. Kim is a book that works at three levels. It is a tale of high adventure. It is also the drama of a boy having entirely his boy's own way, and coming of age - and it is the mystical exegesis of Indian life. Kim will endure because it is, like all masterly endings - a true beginning.</span></span></blockquote>
The first decade of the 20th century saw Kipling at the height of his popularity.<br />
In 1906 he wrote the song 'Land of our Birth, We Pledge to Thee'.<br />
Kipling wrote two science fiction short stories, 'With the Night Mail' (1905) and 'As Easy As A. B. C' (1912), both set in the 21st century in Kipling's Aerial Board of Control universe.<br />
These read like modern hard science fiction, and introduced the literary technique known as indirect exposition, which would later become one of Heinlein's trademarks.<br />
In 1907, he was awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature.<br />
The prize citation said:<br />
<i>"In consideration of the power of observation, originality of imagination, virility of ideas and remarkable talent for narration which characterize the creations of this world-famous author." </i><br />
Nobel prizes had been established in 1901, and Kipling was the first English-language recipient.<br />
At the award ceremony in Stockholm on 10 December 1907, the Permanent Secretary of the Swedish Academy, Carl David af Wirsén, praised both Kipling and three centuries of English literature:<br />
After recieving this award Kipling had published two connected poetry and story collections: 'Puck of Pook's Hill' (1906), and 'Rewards and Fairies' (1910).<br />
The latter contained the poem 'If'.<br />
This exhortation to self-control and stoicism is arguably Kipling's most famous poem.<br />
Many have wondered why he was never made Poet Laureate.<br />
Some claim that he was offered the post during the interregnum of 1892–96 and turned it down.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"> First World War (1914–18)</span><br />
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At the beginning of World War I, like many other writers, Kipling wrote pamphlets and poems which enthusiastically supported the UK's war aims of restoring Belgium after that kingdom had been occupied by Germany together with more generalised statements that Britain was standing up for the cause of good.<br />
In September 1914, Kipling was asked by the British government to write propaganda, an offer that he immediately accepted.<br />
Kipling's pamphlets and stories were very popular with the British people during the war with his major themes being glorifying the British military as the place for heroic men to be, German atrocities against Belgian civilians and the stories of women being brutalized by a horrific war unleashed by Germany, yet surviving and triumphing in spite of their suffering.<br />
Kipling was enraged by reports of the so-called, (and largely fictitious) '<i>Rape of Belgium</i>' together with the sinking of the RMS Lusitania in 1915, which he saw as a deeply inhumane act, which led him to see the war as a 'crusade' for English civilization against Germanic (<i>Hun</i>) 'barbarism'.<br />
In a 1915 speech Kipling declared that<br />
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<i>"There was no crime, no cruelty, no abomination that the mind of men can conceive of which the German has not perpetrated, is not perpetrating, and will not perpetrate if he is allowed to go on...Today, there are only two divisions in the world...human beings and Germans."</i></blockquote>
Alongside his passionate antipathy towards Germany, Kipling was privately deeply critical of how the war was fought by the British Army as opposed to the war itself, which he ardently supported, complaining as early as October 1914 that Germany should have been defeated by now, and something must be wrong with the British Army.<br />
Kipling, who was shocked by the heavy losses that the BEF had taken by the autumn of 1914 blamed the entire pre-war generation of British politicians, who he argued had failed to learn the lessons of the Boer War and as a result, thousands of British soldiers were now paying with their lives for their failure in the fields of France and Belgium.<br />
Kipling had scorn for those men who shirked duty in the First World War.<br />
In 'The New Army in Training', Kipling concluded the piece by saying:<br />
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<i> This much we can realise, even though we are so close to it, the old safe instinct saves us from triumph and exultation. But what will be the position in years to come of the young man who has deliberately elected to outcaste himself from this all-embracing brotherhood? What of his family, and, above all, what of his descendants, when the books have been closed and the last balance struck of sacrifice and sorrow in every hamlet, village, parish, suburb, city, shire, district, province, and Dominion throughout the Empire?</i></blockquote>
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Kipling actively and thoughtlessly encouraged his young son to go to war.<br />
Kipling's son John died in the First World War, at the Battle of Loos in September 1915, at age 18.<br />
John had initially wanted to join the Royal Navy, but having had his application turned down after a failed medical examination due to poor eyesight, he opted to apply for military service as an Army officer.<br />
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But again, his eyesight was an issue during the medical examination.<br />
In fact, he tried twice to enlist, but was rejected.<br />
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His father had been lifelong friends with Lord Roberts, commander-in-chief of the British Army, and colonel of the Irish Guards, and at Rudyard's request, and quite wrongly, John was accepted into the Irish Guards.<br />
He was sent to Loos two days into the battle in a reinforcement contingent.<br />
He was last seen stumbling through the mud blindly, screaming in agony after an exploding shell had ripped his face apart.<br />
A body identified as his was not found until 1992, although that identification has been challenged.<br />
After his son's death, Kipling wrote,<br />
<i>"If any question why we died/ Tell them, because our fathers lied."</i><br />
<i> </i>It is speculated that these words may reveal his feelings of guilt at his role in getting John a commission in the Irish Guards.<br />
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Kipling was said to help assuage his grief over the death of his son through reading the novels of Jane Austen aloud to his wife and daughter.<br />
During the war, he wrote a booklet 'The Fringes of the Fleet', containing essays and poems on various nautical subjects of the war.<br />
Some of the poems were set to music by English composer Edward Elgar.<br />
Kipling became friends with a French soldier whose life had been saved in the First World War when his copy of 'Kim', which he had in his left breast pocket, stopped a bullet.<br />
The soldier presented Kipling with the book (with bullet still embedded) and his Croix de Guerre as a token of gratitude.<br />
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<span style="font-size: large;">After the war (1918–1936)</span><br />
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Partly in response to John's death, Kipling joined Sir Fabian Ware's Imperial War Graves Commission (now the Commonwealth War Graves Commission), the group responsible for the garden-like British war graves that can be found to this day dotted along the former Western Front and all the other locations around the world where troops of the British Empire lie buried.<br />
His most significant contribution to the project was his selection of the biblical phrase "<i>Their Name Liveth For Evermore</i>" (Ecclesiasticus 44.14, KJV) found on the Stones of Remembrance in larger war cemeteries and his suggestion of the phrase "<i>Known unto God</i>" for the gravestones of unidentified servicemen.<br />
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He chose the inscription "<i>The Glorious Dead</i>" on the Cenotaph, Whitehall, London.<br />
He also wrote a two-volume history of the Irish Guards, his son's regiment, that was published in 1923 and is considered to be one of the finest examples of regimental history.<br />
Kipling's moving short story, 'The Gardener', depicts visits to the war cemeteries, and the poem 'The King's Pilgrimage' (1922) depicts a journey which King George V made, touring the cemeteries and memorials under construction by the Imperial War Graves Commission.<br />
With the increasing popularity of the automobile, Kipling became a motoring correspondent for the British press, and wrote enthusiastically of his trips around England and abroad, even though he was usually driven by a chauffeur.<br />
After the war, Kipling was skeptical about the Fourteen Points and the League of Nations, but he had great hopes that the United States would abandon isolationism and that the post-war world would be dominated by an Anglo-French-American alliance.<br />
Kipling hoped that the United States would take on a League of Nations mandate for Armenia as the best way of preventing isolationism, and hoped that Theodore Roosevelt, whom Kipling admired, would once again become president.<br />
Kipling was saddened by Roosevelt's death in 1919, believing that his friend was the only American politician capable of keeping the United States in the "game" of world politics.<br />
In 1920 Kipling co-founded the Liberty League with Haggard and Lord Sydenham.<br />
This short-lived enterprise focused on promoting classic liberal ideals as a response to the rising power of Communist tendencies within Great Britain, or, as Kipling put it, <i>"to combat the advance of Bolshevism</i>".<br />
In 1922 Kipling, who had made reference to the work of engineers in some of his poems, such as 'The Sons of Martha', 'Sappers', and 'McAndrew's Hymn', and in other writings such as short story anthologies, for instance 'The Day's Work', was asked by University of Toronto civil engineering professor Herbert E. T. Haultain for his assistance in developing a dignified obligation and ceremony for graduating engineering students.<br />
Kipling was enthusiastic in his response and shortly produced both, formally entitled 'The Ritual of the Calling of an Engineer'.<br />
Today, engineering graduates all across Canada are presented with an iron ring at the ceremony as a reminder of their obligation to society.<br />
In 1922 Kipling also became Lord Rector of St Andrews University in Scotland, a three-year position. Kipling, who was a francophile, argued very strongly for an Anglo-French alliance to uphold the peace, calling Britain and France in 1920 the <i>"twin fortresses of European civilization</i>".<br />
Along the same lines, Kipling repeatedly warned against revising the Treaty of Versailles in Germany's favor, which he predicated would lead to a new world war.<br />
In 1924, Kipling was opposed to the Labour government of Ramsay MacDonald as "<i>Bolshevism without bullets</i>", but believing that Labour was a Communist front organisation he took the view that "<i>excited orders and instructions from Moscow</i>" would expose Labour as such an organisation to the British people.<br />
Kipling's views were on the right and he admired Benito Mussolini to a certain extent for a time in the 1920s, <br />
In 1934 he published a short story in Strand Magazine, 'Proofs of Holy Writ', which postulated that William Shakespeare had helped to polish the prose of the King James Bible.<br />
Kipling kept writing until the early 1930s, but at a slower pace and with much less success than before.<br />
On the night of 12 January 1936, Kipling suffered a haemorrhage in his small intestine.<br />
He underwent surgery, but died less than a week later on 18 January 1936 at the age of 70 of a perforated duodenal ulcer.<br />
The pallbearers at the funeral included Kipling's cousin, the UK Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin, and the marble casket was covered by a Union flag.<br />
Kipling was cremated at Golders Green Crematorium, northwest London, and his ashes were buried in Poets' Corner, part of the South Transept of Westminster Abbey, next to the graves of Charles Dickens and Thomas Hardy.<br />
In 2010 the International Astronomical Union approved that a crater on the planet Mercury would be named after Kipling - one of ten newly discovered impact craters observed by the 'MESSENGER' spacecraft in 2008–9.<br />
More than 50 unpublished poems by Kipling were released for the first time in March 2013.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times,"Times New Roman",serif; font-size: x-large;"> Kipling - an Assessment</span><br />
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To assess Kipling we must first come back to Kipling's ubdoubted masterpiece, 'Kim'.<br />
The boy Kim was, like his creator, 'Anglo-Indian'.<br />
That term, of course, is<i> now</i> used for what were<i> then</i> called 'Eurasians' – persons of mixed blood, part Indian and part European.<br />
In Kipling's day 'Anglo Indian' meant an English person born in India.<br />
But the ever resourceful Kim was <i>almost</i> 'Eurasian'.<br />
With the judicious use of native dye, and a Hindu loincloth, Kim could easily pass himself off a a Hindu boy, with language, accent and use of the vernacular indistinguishable from that of a genuine native.<br />
Now Kim was undoubtedly the boy that Kipling<i> wanted</i> to be, and to have been.<br />
Attractive, fit and athletic, - a boy who could charm the birds right off the trees - and the girls.<br />
Tall for his age, and not clumsy and half blind like Kipling, Kim was a 'boy's boy'.<br />
Kim was the 'Friend of all the World' – whereas Kipling, particularly as he grew older, always seemed to be akways making enemies.<br />
But Kim and Kipling did have one important trait in common – neither of them knew <i>where</i> they really belonged, and if Kim were real, and actually grew up (in this respect – and in some others, he is like Barrie's Peter Pan), he would have probably felt a<i> stranger</i> in almost any place he found himself, just like Kipling.<br />
Bombay and Lahore were their cities, the vast Indian sub-continent was thier land, and their time was their youth.<br />
And both the 'real' Kipling, and the superbly imagined Kim lived in a strange 'shadow land' of mystery and romance, half England of the sahibs, and India of the numerous races that comprised the many subjects of the Raj.<br />
In many ways Kipling was a very nasty little man, and got worse as he got older.<br />
But of course there is no law that says that a 'genius' should be 'nice'.<br />
It is clear, however, that the further he strayed from his 'art', the 'nastier', he got.<br />
His views on politics, economics, social policy and geopolitics were ill conceived, and in most cases born of ignorance and prejudice.<br />
Having become, by the standards of his day, a 'superstar', he eventually came to believe that there was no subject about which he could not pontificate, (which is amusing as one of his obsessions was anti-Catholicism).<br />
Despite his colossal wealth, he was, in a strange way unique to himself, intensely anti-Semitic – not after the manner of the Völkish groups to be found on the continent, but in an oddly Anglo-Indian manner.<br />
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But let Kipling have the last word....... <br />
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<span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS",sans-serif;">'The Gods of the Copybook Headings'</span></span><br />
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<i> As I pass through my incarnations in every age and race,<br /> I make my proper prostrations to the Gods of the Market Place.<br /> Peering through reverent fingers I watch them flourish and fall,<br /> And the Gods of the Copybook Headings, I notice, outlast them all.<br /><br /> We were living in trees when they met us. They showed us each in turn<br /> That Water would certainly wet us, as Fire would certainly burn:<br /> But we found them lacking in Uplift, Vision and Breadth of Mind,<br /> So we left them to teach the Gorillas while we followed the March of Mankind.<br /><br /> We moved as the Spirit listed. They never altered their pace,<br /> Being neither cloud nor wind-borne like the Gods of the Market Place,<br /> But they always caught up with our progress, and presently word would come<br /> That a tribe had been wiped off its icefield, or the lights had gone out in Rome.<br /><br /> With the Hopes that our World is built on they were utterly out of touch,<br /> They denied that the Moon was Stilton; they denied she was even Dutch;<br /> They denied that Wishes were Horses; they denied that a Pig had Wings;<br /> So we worshipped the Gods of the Market Who promised these beautiful things.<br /><br /> When the Cambrian measures were forming, They promised perpetual peace.<br /> They swore, if we gave them our weapons, that the wars of the tribes would cease.<br /> But when we disarmed They sold us and delivered us bound to our foe,<br /> And the Gods of the Copybook Headings said: "Stick to the Devil you know."<br /><br /> On the first Feminian Sandstones we were promised the Fuller Life<br /> (Which started by loving our neighbour and ended by loving his wife)<br /> Till our women had no more children and the men lost reason and faith,<br /> And the Gods of the Copybook Headings said: "The Wages of Sin is Death."<br /><br /> In the Carboniferous Epoch we were promised abundance for all,<br /> By robbing selected Peter to pay for collective Paul;<br /> But, though we had plenty of money, there was nothing our money could buy,<br /> And the Gods of the Copybook Headings said: "If you don't work you die."<br /><br /> Then the Gods of the Market tumbled, and their smooth-tongued wizards withdrew<br /> And the hearts of the meanest were humbled and began to believe it was true<br /> That All is not Gold that Glitters, and Two and Two make Four<br /> And the Gods of the Copybook Headings limped up to explain it once more.<br /><br /> As it will be in the future, it was at the birth of Man<br /> There are only four things certain since Social Progress began.<br /> That the Dog returns to his Vomit and the Sow returns to her Mire,<br /> And the burnt Fool's bandaged finger goes wabbling back to the Fire;<br /><br /> And that after this is accomplished, and the brave new world begins<br /> When all men are paid for existing and no man must pay for his sins,<br /> As surely as Water will wet us, as surely as Fire will burn,<br /> The Gods of the Copybook Headings with terror and slaughter return ! </i><br />
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<i> </i> Rudyard Kipling<br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-87620124980781807872015-07-28T08:19:00.000-07:002015-07-29T15:06:30.514-07:00Michael Ventris - a Strangely English Genius<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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Linear B is a syllabic script that was used for writing Mycenaean Greek, the earliest attested language form of Greek. The script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries.The oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1450 BC. It is descended from the older Linear A, an undeciphered earlier script used for writing the Minoan language, as is the later Cypriot syllabary, which also recorded Greek. Linear B, found mainly in the palace archives at Knossos, Cydonia, Pylos, Thebes and Mycenae, disappeared with the fall of Mycenaean civilization during the Bronze Age Collapse. It is also the only one of the three "Linears" (the third being Linear C, aka Cypro-Minoan 1) to be deciphered, in this case by the strangely English genius - the self-taught linguist, Michael Ventris.</blockquote>
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Michael
George Francis Ventris, OBE (12 July 1922 – 6 September 1956) was
an English linguist and architect who, along with John Chadwick and
Alice Kober, deciphered Linear B, a previously unknown ancient script
discovered at Knossos by Arthur Evans.</div>
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A prodigy
in languages, Ventris had pursued the decipherment as an avocation
since his teen-age years.</div>
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After
creating a new field of study, Ventris died in a mysterious
automobile accident a few weeks before publication of his first
definitive work, 'Documents in Mycenaean Greek'.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Tuvn12qvU-M/VbiSj887-oI/AAAAAAAAbjI/DxiBNOeWCbg/s1600/Michael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="302" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Tuvn12qvU-M/VbiSj887-oI/AAAAAAAAbjI/DxiBNOeWCbg/s320/Michael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="320" /></a> </div>
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: large;">EARLY LIFE </span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Ventris
was born into a traditional army family then coming to an end.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His
father, Edward Francis Vereker Ventris, reached the rank of
Lieutenant Colonel in the Indian Army; he might have gone further had
he not contracted tuberculosis and retired. His grandfather, Francis
Ventris, was a Major-General who ended his career as Commander of
British Forces in China.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Both men
served in the Middle and Far East, the younger especially in India.
During one of his stays in England, Michael's future father married
Anna Dorothea Janasz (Dora), the daughter of a wealthy immigrant
landholder from Poland.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Her
photographs reveal a slender, dark-haired beauty.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
They had
one child, Michael. Health was an important family consideration
right from the beginning of Michael's life.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He had
chronic bronchial asthma. The family resided mainly in Switzerland
for eight years, which they could well afford to do.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Switzerland
had a reputation for being especially healthy.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
A number
of health centers, or spas, catered to the physical well-being of
those who could afford to attend.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Ventris
started school in Gstaad, where classes were taught only in French
and German. He was soon reasonably fluent in both languages, learning
also the dialect of German spoken in Switzerland.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He had
the facility of learning a language within a matter of weeks, which
led ultimately to his acquisition of roughly a dozen languages.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His
mother must have spoken Polish, as he learned that as well, all
before the age of eight.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
At that
age he was reading Adolf Erman's Die Hieroglyphen in German.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1931
the Ventrises came home.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His
father's physical condition was visibly worsening year by year.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
From 1931
to 1935 Michael attended Bickley Hill School in Stowe.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His
parents, unable to live together since 1932, divorced in 1935, when
he was 13.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-sDPBTEVGpWs/Vbef9TmMVLI/AAAAAAAAbh4/_V70PTQd2UI/s1600/South%2BFront%2B-%2BStowe%2Bschool%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="173" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-sDPBTEVGpWs/Vbef9TmMVLI/AAAAAAAAbh4/_V70PTQd2UI/s320/South%2BFront%2B-%2BStowe%2Bschool%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Stowe School</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Then he
won a scholarship to Stowe School, quartered in an 18th-century
stately home.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
At Stowe
he learned some Latin and classical Greek.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He did
not do outstanding work there.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
By then
he was spending most of his spare time learning as much as he could
about Linear B, some of his study time being spent under the covers
at night with a flash-light.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-_4yXRZ1s8n4/VbiSPuPqlTI/AAAAAAAAbjA/t-Zxz7J3d-c/s1600/Stowe%2Bschool%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-_4yXRZ1s8n4/VbiSPuPqlTI/AAAAAAAAbjA/t-Zxz7J3d-c/s200/Stowe%2Bschool%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.png" width="195" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Stowe School</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
When he
was not away at school, Michael lived with his mother, before 1935 in
coastal hotels, after 1935 (when they were built) in the avant garde
Berthold Lubetkin's Highpoint modernist apartments in Highgate.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His
mother's acquaintances, who frequented the house, included many
sculptors, painters and writers of the day.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The money
for her sophisticated life style came from the Polish estates.<br />
Young
Adult Michael's father died in 1938 when Michael was 16 years old.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Dora
became administrator of the estate.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Hard
times, however, lay ahead.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
After the
German invasion of Poland in 1939 the family holdings in that country
were gone, and all income from there ceased.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1940
Dora's father died.<br />
The family became practically destitute.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Michael
lost his mother to clinical depression and an overdose of
barbiturates.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He never
spoke of her, assuming instead an ebullient and energetic manner in
whatever he decided to do, a trait which won him numerous friends.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
At the
same time they noted that he had a dark and mysterious side as well,
associated with feelings that he was a fraud, and not a true genius.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Fw36KNaHYv0/VbiOnOfwjRI/AAAAAAAAbig/CAjLCuZmb0Q/s1600/Naum%2BGabo%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="161" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Fw36KNaHYv0/VbiOnOfwjRI/AAAAAAAAbig/CAjLCuZmb0Q/s200/Naum%2BGabo%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Naum Gabo</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
A friend
of the family, Russian sculptor Naum Gabo, took Michael under his
wing.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Michael
later said that Gabo was the most family he had ever had.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It may
have been at Gabo's house that he began the study of Russian.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He had
resolved on architecture for a career.<br />
He enrolled at the
Architectural Association School of Architecture.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
There he
met and married Lois, who preferred to be called Betty.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Her
social background was similar to what Ventris's had been: her family
was well-to-do, she had travelled in Europe, and she was interested
in architecture, in addition to which she was popular and was
considered very beautiful.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He did
not complete his architecture studies, being conscripted in 1942.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-uvLmnVwFPN0/VbegUgW5N1I/AAAAAAAAbiA/pa5oZwW7bX8/s1600/Wellington%2BBomber%2B-%2BStowe%2Bschool%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="180" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-uvLmnVwFPN0/VbegUgW5N1I/AAAAAAAAbiA/pa5oZwW7bX8/s320/Wellington%2BBomber%2B-%2BStowe%2Bschool%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Handley Page
Halifax</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
He chose
the Royal Air Force (RAF). His preference was for navigator rather
than pilot, and he completed the extensive training in the UK and
Canada, to qualify early in 1944 and be commissioned.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
While
training, he studied Russian intensively for several weeks, the
purpose of which, if any, is not clear.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He took
part in the bombing of Germany, as aircrew on the Handley Page
Halifax with No. 76 Squadron RAF, initially at RAF Breighton and then
at RAF Holme-on-Spalding Moor.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
After the
conclusion of the war he served out the rest of his term on the
ground in Germany, for which he was chosen because of his knowledge
of Russian.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His
duties are unclear.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
His
friends all assumed he was completing intelligence assignments,
interpreting his denials as part of a legal gag.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br /></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<span style="font-size: large;">ARCHITECT
and PALAEOGRAPHER</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-RGdNfH8ldrg/VbeglCR7lvI/AAAAAAAAbiI/Xtse9OGMx74/s1600/1948%2B-%2Bopera%2BHouse%2Bplan%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="285" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-RGdNfH8ldrg/VbeglCR7lvI/AAAAAAAAbiI/Xtse9OGMx74/s320/1948%2B-%2Bopera%2BHouse%2Bplan%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="320" /></a></div>
<br />
After the
war he worked briefly in Sweden, learning enough Swedish to
communicate with scholars in it.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Then he
came home to complete his architectural education with honors in 1948
and settled down with Lois working as an architect.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He
designed schools for the Ministry of Education.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Then he
and his wife designed a home for themselves and their family.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He had
two children, a son, Nikki (1942–1984) and a daughter, Tessa
(1946–). Concurrently he stepped up his effort on Linear B,
discovering finally that it was Greek, a revelation to an academic
public that had more or less given up on the mysterious script.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
No one,
not even Ventris, suspected that it is the earliest known form of
Greek.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Ventris
was awarded an OBE in 1955 for "services to Mycenaean
paleography."</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dn4IETzw6a0/VbibsuvaKlI/AAAAAAAAbj0/ej76FewDk40/s1600/Michael%2BVentris%2B2%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dn4IETzw6a0/VbibsuvaKlI/AAAAAAAAbj0/ej76FewDk40/s200/Michael%2BVentris%2B2%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg.jpg" width="185" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Michael Ventris</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
The upshot of this triumph turned into tragedy for Ventris.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
He was still in his early 30,s and the world was at his feet: but which way should he go ?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The academic world did not entice such a free spirit, so he returned to architecture.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
But at the end of six months, he was becoming disenchanted.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
On 5 September 1956, he left his new house in Hampstead late at night and driving fast down the Barnet bypass, crashed into the back of a stationary lorry and was killed instantly: he was only 34.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The suspicion remains that if it was not exactly suicide, it was something close to it.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Should one recall perhaps that another frustrated classicist, Lawrence of Arabia, was also killed on his motorbike ?</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
And, of course, both men were deeply emeshed in the shadowy world of British Intelliigence.<br />
Perhaps Ventris knew too much, or could not be trusted ?<br />
<br />
<span style="font-size: large;">EVANS, KNOSSOS and LINEAR B</span></div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Yf13HJjcu34/VbehMd8gfoI/AAAAAAAAbiQ/vbQAIGSKq-A/s1600/Knossos%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="179" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Yf13HJjcu34/VbehMd8gfoI/AAAAAAAAbiQ/vbQAIGSKq-A/s200/Knossos%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Evan's Reconstruction of Knossos</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bg7Nx2j1dGM/VbiYGslp_5I/AAAAAAAAbjg/QgZsEutYj0M/s1600/arthur%2Bevans%2B-%2Bknossos%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-bg7Nx2j1dGM/VbiYGslp_5I/AAAAAAAAbjg/QgZsEutYj0M/s200/arthur%2Bevans%2B-%2Bknossos%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="141" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arthur Evans</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
At the
beginning of the 20th century, archaeologist Arthur Evans began
excavating Knossos, an ancient city on the island of Crete.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In doing
so he uncovered a great many clay tablets inscribed with an unknown
script. Some were older and were named Linear A.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The bulk
were of more recent vintage, and were dubbed Linear B. Evans spent
the next several decades trying to decipher both, to no avail.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In 1936,
Evans hosted an exhibition of Cretan archaeology at Burlington House
in London, home of the Royal Academy.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It was
the jubilee anniversary (50 years) of the British School of
Archaeology in Athens, contemporaneous owners and managers of the
Knossos site.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-swPl06l14cs/VbihjriGmEI/AAAAAAAAbkE/Fh-9c9sgfZA/s1600/linear-b%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-swPl06l14cs/VbihjriGmEI/AAAAAAAAbkE/Fh-9c9sgfZA/s200/linear-b%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.png" width="149" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Linear B</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Evans had
given the site to them some years previously. Villa Ariadne, Evans's
home there, was now part of the school.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Boys from
Stowe school were in attendance at one lecture and tour conducted by
Evans himself at age 85. Ventris, 14 years old, was present and
remembered Evans walking with a stick.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The stick
was undoubtedly the cane named Prodger which Evans carried all his
life to assist him with his short-sightedness and night blindness.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Evans
held up tablets of the unknown scripts for the audience to see.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
During
the interview period following the lecture, Ventris immediately
confirmed that Linear B was as yet undeciphered, and determined to
decipher it.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Ventris's
initial theory was that Etruscan and Linear B were related and that
this might provide a key to decipherment.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Although
this proved incorrect, it was a link he continued to explore until
the early 1950s.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ZYMBVicx02s/VbiVohMTywI/AAAAAAAAbjU/nlarVtQfh54/s1600/Knossos%2Breconstruction%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ZYMBVicx02s/VbiVohMTywI/AAAAAAAAbjU/nlarVtQfh54/s320/Knossos%2Breconstruction%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reconstruction of the Interior of the Palace at Knossos</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Shortly
after Evans died, Alice Kober noted that certain words in Linear B
inscriptions had changing word endings - perhaps declensions in the
manner of Latin or Greek.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Using
this clue, Ventris constructed a series of grids associating the
symbols on the tablets with consonants and vowels.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
While
which consonants and vowels these were remained mysterious, Ventris
learned enough about the structure of the underlying language to
begin guessing.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Some
Linear B tablets had been discovered on the Greek mainland, and there
was reason to believe that some of the chains of symbols he had
encountered on the Cretan tablets were names.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Noting
that certain names appeared only in the Cretan texts, Ventris made
the inspired guess that those names applied to cities on the island.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
This
proved to be correct.<br />
Armed with the symbols he could decipher from
this, Ventris soon unlocked much text and determined that the
underlying language of Linear B was in fact Greek.</div>
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<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gczM6pGKr2E/VbiQWMlJEsI/AAAAAAAAbis/ukRSRTesRIY/s1600/palac%2Bof%2Bknossos%2B-%2BLinear%2BB%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="166" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-gczM6pGKr2E/VbiQWMlJEsI/AAAAAAAAbis/ukRSRTesRIY/s320/palac%2Bof%2Bknossos%2B-%2BLinear%2BB%2B-%2BMichael%2BVentris%2B-%2B%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BZac%2BSawyer%2B2015.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reconstruction of the Palace at Knossos</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
This
overturned Evans's theories of Minoan history by establishing that
Cretan civilization, at least in the later periods associated with
the Linear B tablets, had been part of Mycenean Greece.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Linear B
itself is a syllabic script that was used for writing Mycenaean
Greek, the earliest attested language form of Greek.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
script predates the Greek alphabet by several centuries.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
oldest Mycenaean writing dates to about 1450 BC.<br />
It is descended from
the older Linear A, a still undeciphered earlier script used for
writing the Minoan language, as is the later Cypriot syllabary, which
also recorded Greek.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Linear B,
found mainly in the palace archives at Knossos, Cydonia, Pylos,
Thebes and Mycenae, disappeared with the fall of Mycenaean
civilization during the Bronze Age Collapse.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
succeeding period, known as the Greek Dark Ages, provides no evidence
of the use of writing.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
It is
also the only one of the three "Linears" (the third being
Linear C, aka Cypro-Minoan 1) to be deciphered. Linear B consists of
around 87 syllabic signs and over 100 ideographic signs.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
These
ideograms or "signifying" signs symbolize objects or
commodities.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
They have
no phonetic value, and are never used as word signs in writing a
sentence.
</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
The
application of Linear B appears to have been confined to
administrative contexts.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
In all
the thousands of clay tablets, a relatively small number of different
"hands" have been detected: 45 in Pylos (west coast of the
Peloponnese, in southern Greece) and 66 in Knossos (Crete).</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
From this
fact, it could be thought that the script was used by only a guild of
professional scribes who served the central palaces.</div>
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Once the
palaces were destroyed, the script disappeared.<br />
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-size: large;"> POSTSCRIPT</span></div>
<blockquote class="tr_bq">
It is hard to underestimate the importance of the discovery that Linear B was Greek. Hitherto the general assumption had been that the Greeks had invaded Greece in the Dark Ages in a series of invasions, first the Dorians, followed by the Ionians, bringing with them the different dialects of Greek.<br />
<div align="JUSTIFY" class="western" style="margin-bottom: 0cm;">
Suddenly this was all wrong. The Greeks were already in Greece, and Greek becomes the world’s prime example of a long lived language. There was also the further implication that Minoan Linear B was not essentially Minoan at all but Mycenaean, and represented a Mycenaean takeover of the Minoan palaces in their final stages and that Minoan Linear A, which is still undeciphered but is generally considered to be non-Greek, represents the original Minoan language.</div>
</blockquote>
</div>
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<div class="separator" style="clear: both; text-align: center;">
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</div>
</div>
Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-1565245298273193482015-06-15T14:52:00.002-07:002015-07-29T15:08:50.394-07:00Siegfried Sassoon<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0ppf6I0OAvw/VYCHcawP8GI/AAAAAAAAbfk/OatjyoQUqF4/s1600/Siegfried%2BSassoon%2B-%2BPortrait%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0ppf6I0OAvw/VYCHcawP8GI/AAAAAAAAbfk/OatjyoQUqF4/s320/Siegfried%2BSassoon%2B-%2BPortrait%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford.jpg" width="244" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">SIEGFRIED SASSOON</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Siegfried Loraine Sassoon, CBE, MC (8 September 1886 – 1 September 1967) was an English poet, writer, and soldier.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Decorated for bravery on the Western Front, he became one of the leading poets of the First World War. His poetry both described the horrors of the trenches, and satirized the patriotic pretensions of those who, in Sassoon's view, were responsible for a jingoism-fueled war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon became a focal point for dissent within the armed forces when he made a lone protest against the continuation of the war in his "Soldier's Declaration" of 1917, culminating in his admission to a military psychiatric hospital; this resulted in his forming a friendship with Wilfred Owen, who was greatly influenced by him.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon later won acclaim for his prose work, notably his three-volume 'fictionalized' autobiography.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">EARLY LIFE</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Siegfried Sassoon was born and grew up in the neo-gothic home named "Weirleigh" in Matfield, Kent, to a Jewish father and an Anglo-Catholic mother.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">His father, Alfred Ezra Sassoon (1861–1895), son of Sassoon David Sassoon, was a member of the wealthy Baghdadi Jewish Sassoon merchant family.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">For marrying outside the faith, Alfred was disinherited.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Siegfried's mother, Theresa, belonged to the Thornycroft family, sculptors responsible for many of the best-known statues in London - her brother was Sir Hamo Thornycroft.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">There was no German ancestry in Siegfried's family; his mother named him Siegfried because of her love of Wagner's operas.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Siegfried was the first of three sons, the others being Michael and Hamo. When he was four years old his parents separated.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In 1895 Alfred Sassoon died of tuberculosis. Sassoon was educated at the New Beacon School, Sevenoaks, Kent; at Marlborough College, Marlborough, Wiltshire (where he was a member of Cotton House), and at Clare College, Cambridge, where from 1905 to 1907 he read history.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He went down from Cambridge without a degree and spent the next few years hunting, playing cricket and writing verse: some he published privately.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Since his father had been disinherited from the Sassoon fortune for marrying a non-Jew, Siegfried had only a small private fortune that allowed him to live modestly without having to earn a living (however, he would later be left a generous legacy by an aunt, Rachel Beer, allowing him to buy the great estate of Heytesbury House in Wiltshire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">His first published success, 'The Daffodil Murderer' (1913), was a parody of John Masefield's 'The Everlasting Mercy'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Robert Graves, in 'Good-Bye to All That' describes it as a "parody of Masefield which, midway through, had forgotten to be a parody and turned into rather good Masefield." </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon expressed his opinions on the political situation before the onset of the First World War thus—"<i>France was a lady, Russia was a bear, and performing in the county cricket team was much more important than either of them</i>".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon wanted to play for Kent County Cricket Club; Kent Captain Frank Marchant was a neighbour of Sassoon.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Siegfried often turned out for Bluehouses at the Nevill Ground, where he sometimes played alongside <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/english-literature-e-n-g-li-s-h-l-i-t-e.html" target="_blank">Arthur Conan Doyle</a>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He also played cricket for his house at Marlborough College, once taking 7 wickets for 18 runs. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Although an enthusiast, Sassoon was not good enough to play for Kent, but he played cricket for Matfield, and later for the Downside Abbeyteam.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">THE GREAT WAR</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Motivated by patriotism, Sassoon joined the British Army just as the threat of a new European war was recognized, and was in service with the Sussex Yeomanry on 4 August 1914, the day the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland declared <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/08/spirit-of-england-great-war.html" target="_blank">war on Germany</a>. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He broke his arm badly in a riding accident, and was put out of action before even leaving England, spending the spring of 1915 convalescing.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Siegfried Sassoon - 1915</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He was commissioned into the 3rd Battalion (Special Reserve), Royal Welch Fusiliers, as a second lieutenant on 29 May 1915.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">On 1 November his younger brother Hamo was killed in the Gallipoli Campaign, and in the same month Siegfried was sent to the 1st Battalion in France.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">There he met <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/english-literature-e-n-g-li-s-h-l-i-t-e.html" target="_blank">Robert Graves</a>, and they became close friends.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">United by their poetic vocation, they often read and discussed each other's work.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Though this did not have much perceptible influence on Graves's poetry, his views on what may be called '<i>gritty realism</i>' profoundly affected Sassoon's concept of what constituted poetry.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He soon became horrified by the realities of war, and the tone of his writing changed completely: where his early poems exhibit a Romantic, dilettantish sweetness, his war poetry moves to an increasingly discordant music, intended to convey the ugly truths of the trenches to an audience hitherto lulled by patriotic propaganda.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Details such as rotting corpses, mangled limbs, filth, cowardice and suicide are all trademarks of his work at this time, and this philosophy of '<i>no truth unfitting</i>' had a significant effect on the movement towards '<i>Modernist'</i> poetry.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon's periods of duty on the Western Front were marked by exceptionally brave actions, including the single-handed capture of a German trench in the Hindenburg Line. Armed with grenades, he scattered sixty German soldiers.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon's bravery was inspiring to the extent that soldiers of his company said that they felt confident only when they were accompanied by him.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He often went out on night-raids and bombing patrols, and demonstrated ruthless efficiency as a company commander.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2015</span><br />
the Military Cross</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Deepening depression at the horror and misery the soldiers were forced to endure produced in Sassoon a paradoxically manic courage, and he was nicknamed "<i>Mad Jack</i>" by his men for his near-suicidal exploits.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">On 27 July 1916 he was awarded the Military Cross.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Despite his decorations and reputation, however, in 1917 Sassoon decided to make a stand against the conduct of the war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">One of the reasons for his violent anti-war feeling was the death of his friend David Cuthbert Thomas, who appears as "Dick Tiltwood" in the Sherston trilogy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon would spend years trying to overcome his grief.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">At the end of a spell of convalescent leave, Sassoon declined to return to duty; instead, encouraged by pacifist friends such as Bertrand Russell and Lady Ottoline Morrell, he sent a letter to his commanding officer entitled 'Finished with the War: A Soldier’s Declaration'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Forwarded to the press and read out in the House of Commons by a sympathetic member of parliament, the letter was seen by some as treasonous ("<i>I am making this statement as an act of wilful defiance of military authority</i>"), or at best as condemning the war government's motives ("<i>I believe that the war upon which I entered as a war of defence and liberation has now become a war of aggression and conquest</i>").</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Rather than court-martial Sassoon, the Under-Secretary of State for War, Ian Macpherson, decided that he was unfit for service and had him sent to Craiglockhart War Hospital near Edinburgh, where he was officially treated for neurasthenia ("shell shock").</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Before declining to return to active service, Sassoon had thrown the ribbon of his Military Cross into the river Mersey.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">According to his description of this incident in Memoirs of an Infantry Officer he did not, as one would infer from the context of his action, do this as a symbolic rejection of militaristic values, but simply out of the need to perform some destructive act in catharsis of the black mood which was afflicting him; one of his pre-war sporting trophies, had he had one to hand, would have served his purpose equally well.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">W. H. R. Rivers</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The novel 'Regeneration', by Pat Barker, is a fictionalized account of this period in Sassoon's life, and was made into a film starring James Wilby as Sassoon and Jonathan Pryce as W. H. R. Rivers, the psychiatrist responsible for Sassoon's treatment.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Rivers became a kind of surrogate father to the troubled young man, and his sudden death in 1922 was a major blow to Sassoon.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wilfred Owen</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">At Craiglockhart, Sassoon met Wilfred Owen, a fellow poet who would eventually exceed him in fame.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">It was thanks to Sassoon that Owen persevered in his ambition to write better poetry.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">A manuscript copy of Owen's 'Anthem for Doomed Youth', containing Sassoon's handwritten amendments, survives as testimony to the extent of his influence and is currently on display at London's Imperial War Museum.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon became to Owen "<i>Keats and Christ and Elijah</i>"; surviving documents demonstrate clearly the depth of Owen's homo-erotic love and admiration for him.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Both men returned to active service in France, but Owen was killed in 1918.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon, despite all this, was promoted to lieutenant, and having spent some time out of danger in Palestine, eventually returned to the Front.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">On 13 July 1918, Sassoon was almost immediately wounded again - by friendly fire when he was shot in the head by a fellow British soldier, who had mistaken him for a German (?) near Arras, France.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">As a result, he spent the remainder of the war in Britain.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">By this time he had been promoted acting captain.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He relinquished his commission on health grounds on 12 March 1919, but was allowed to retain the rank of captain.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">After the war, Sassoon was instrumental in bringing Owen's work to the attention of a wider audience.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Their friendship is the subject of Stephen MacDonald's play, 'Not About Heroes'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">POST WAR</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Having lived for a period at Oxford, where he spent more time visiting literary friends than studying, he dabbled briefly in the politics of the Labour movement, and in 1919 took up a post as literary editor of the socialist Daily Herald.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He lived at 54 Tufton Street, Westminster from 1919 to 1925; the house is no longer standing, but the location of his former home is marked by a memorial plaque.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">During his period at the Herald, Sassoon was responsible for employing several eminent names as reviewers, including E. M. Forster and Charlotte Mew, and commissioned original material from "names" like Arnold Bennett and Osbert Sitwell.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">His artistic interests extended to music.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">While at Oxford he was introduced to the young William Walton, to whom he became a friend and patron.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Walton later dedicated his 'Portsmouth Point' overture to Sassoon in recognition of his financial assistance and moral support.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon later embarked on a lecture tour of the USA, as well as travelling in Europe and throughout Britain.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He acquired a car, a gift from the publisher Frankie Schuster, and became renowned among his friends for his lack of driving skill, but this did not prevent him making full use of the mobility it gave him.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon was a great admirer of the Welsh poet Henry Vaughan.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">On a visit to Wales in 1923, he paid a pilgrimage to Vaughan's grave at Llansantffraed, Powys, and there wrote one of his best-known peacetime poems, "At the Grave of Henry Vaughan".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The deaths of three of his closest friends - Edmund Gosse, Thomas Hardy and Frankie Schuster (the publisher) - within a short space of time, came as another serious setback to his personal happiness.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">At the same time, Sassoon was preparing to take a new direction.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">While in America, he had experimented with a novel.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In 1928, he branched out into prose, with 'Memoirs of a Fox-Hunting Man', the anonymously-published first volume of a fictionalized autobiography, which was almost immediately accepted as a 'classic', bringing its author new fame as a humorous writer. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The book won the 1928 James Tait Black Award for fiction.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon followed it with 'Memoirs of an Infantry Officer' (1930), and 'Sherston's Progress' (1936).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In later years, he revisited his youth and early manhood with three volumes of genuine autobiography, which were also widely acclaimed.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">These were 'The Old Century', 'The Weald of Youth', and 'Siegfried's Journey'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">PERSONAL LIFE</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Sassoon, having matured greatly as a result of his military service, continued to seek emotional fulfillment, initially in a succession of love affairs with men, including the landscape architectural and figure painter, draftsman and illustrator, William Park "Gabriel" Atkin, actor Ivor Novello; Novello's former lover, the actor Glen Byam Shaw; German aristocrat Prince Philipp of Hesse; the writer Beverley Nichols and Stephen Tennant.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f4cccc; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Glencairn Alexander</b> "Glen" Byam Shaw, (13 December 1904 – 29 April 1986), was an English actor. Actress Constance Collier was impressed by Byam Shaw and used her influence to gain him roles. Among those to whom she introduced him was Ivor Novello (see below), then a leading figure in London theater. This drew him into contact with the poet Siegfried Sassoon, a friend of Collier; he and Byam Shaw became close. Their friendship lasted for the rest of Sassoon's life, although they ceased to be 'partners' quite quickly when Sassoon became involved with Stephen Tennant.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>David Ivor Davies</b> (15 January 1893 – 6 March 1951), better known as Ivor Novello, was a Welsh composer and actor who became one of the most popular British entertainers of the first half of the 20th century. In 1917 Sir Edward Marsh introduced him to the actor Bobbie Andrews, who became Novello's life partner.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Philipp, Prince and Landgrave of Hesse</b> (6 November 1896 – 25 October 1980) was head of the Electoral House of Hesse from 1940 to 1980. </span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">He joined the National Socialist Party in 1930, and, when they gained power with the appointment of Adolf Hitler as Chancellor in 1933, he became Governor of Hesse-Nassau. He served as governor from 1933. </span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">He was a grandson of Frederick III, German Emperor, and a great-grandson of Queen Victoria, as well as the son-in-law to Victor Emmanuel III of Italy. His relative Prince Philip, Duke of Edinburgh was named after him on 10 June 1921.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>John Beverley Nichols</b> (9 September 1898 – 15 September 1983) was an author, playwright, journalist, composer, and public speaker. </span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Between his first book, the novel Prelude, published in 1920, and his last, a book of poetry, Twilight, published in 1982, Nichols wrote more than 60 books and plays. </span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">He went to school at Marlborough College, and went to Balliol College, Oxford, and was President of the Oxford Union and editor of Isis. </span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Nichols died in 1983. He is buried in Glatton, England.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-HDYOePyLPFI/VYa5GCm48eI/AAAAAAAAbhM/MF5qlnBFPS8/s1600/Siegfried%2BSassoon%2Band%2BStephen%2BTennant%2B-%2BGarmisch%2B1929%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford%2B2015.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-HDYOePyLPFI/VYa5GCm48eI/AAAAAAAAbhM/MF5qlnBFPS8/s200/Siegfried%2BSassoon%2Band%2BStephen%2BTennant%2B-%2BGarmisch%2B1929%2B-%2BSpirit%2Bof%2BEngland%2B-%2BPeter%2BCrawford%2B2015.jpg" width="86" /></a></td></tr>
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- Garmisch 1929</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Only the last of these relationships made a permanent impression on Sassoon, though Shaw remained his close friend throughout his life.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f4cccc; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>Stephen James Napier Tennant</b> (21 April 1906 – 28 February 1987) was a British socialite. He was born in British nobility, the youngest son of a Scottish peer, Edward Tennant, and the former Pamela Wyndham, one of the Wyndham sisters. His mother was also a cousin of Lord Alfred Douglas (1870–1945), Oscar Wilde's lover. His friends included Rex Whistler, Cecil Beaton, the Sitwells, Lady Diana Manners and the Mitford girls. He is widely considered to be the model for Lord Sebastian Flyte in Evelyn Waugh's 'Brideshead Revisited'. When Tennant died in 1987, he had far outlived most of his contemporaries.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In September 1931, Sassoon rented and began to live at Fitz House, Teffont Magna, Wiltshire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In December 1933, to many people's surprise, he married Hester Gatty, who was many years his junior; this led to the birth of a child, something which he had long craved.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">This only child George (1936–2006), became a scientist, linguist and author, and was adored by Siegfried, who wrote several poems addressed to him, however, the marriage broke down after the Second World War.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Separated from his wife in 1945, Sassoon lived in seclusion at Heytesbury in Wiltshire, although he maintained contact with a circle which included E M Forster and J R Ackerley. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">One of his closest friends was the young cricketer Dennis Silk.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He formed a close friendship with Vivien Hancock, headmistress of Greenways School at Ashton Gifford, which his son George attended.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Sassoon was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1951 New Year Honours.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">Towards the end of his life, he converted to Roman Catholicism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">He had hoped that Ronald Knox, a Roman Catholic priest and writer whom he admired, would instruct him in the faith, but Knox was too ill to do so.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">The priest Sebastian Moore was chosen to instruct him instead, and Sassoon was admitted to the faith at Downside Abbey, close to his home.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">He also paid regular visits to the nuns at Stanbrook Abbey, and the abbey press printed commemorative editions of some of his poems.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif;">During this time he also became interested in the supernatural, and joined the Ghost Club.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Siegfried Sassoon died one week before his 81st birthday, and is buried at St Andrew's Church, Mells, Somerset, close to Ronald Knox.</span></div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-25558886166137766962014-12-22T06:59:00.001-08:002016-12-20T12:31:02.377-08:00Spirit of England - An English Chrismas - the 1950s<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms", sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2016</span></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: large;">AN ENGLISH CHRISTMAS - the 1950s</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: x-small;">see - <a href="http://solongago-soclear.blogspot.co.uk/2011/12/early-days.html" target="_blank">So Long Ago So Clear</a> - a 1950s Biography</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Of course Christmas was important for a little boy. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The first few Christmases for little Peter, however, seemed to merge together. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Christmas presents did not seem to loom very large in these memories.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Instead it is the Christmas tree and the decorations that seem to have had the greatest impact. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The tree was always a real fir tree, which reached right up to the ceiling, meaning that for Peter the Christmas tree was immense.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The decorations, which were probably left over from before the war, were mostly made of paper. Compared to later Christmases there seemed to be very little tinsel and glitter.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Those things that did glitter were pre-war, German glass decorations for the Christmas tree.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The only other glitter came from strips of lammeta, which were hung from the branches of the tree, in imitation of frost and icicles. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Christmases were always celebrated almost entirely in the front room, where there was a permanent fire roaring in the grate. </span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-zPBpr10jGDg/TyXEKPSAMzI/AAAAAAAAC9k/JoEzAEAfoNA/s1600/Christmas+Lights+-+Pears+Road+-+Hounslow+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+Peter+Crawford+Biography.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="102" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-zPBpr10jGDg/TyXEKPSAMzI/AAAAAAAAC9k/JoEzAEAfoNA/s200/Christmas+Lights+-+Pears+Road+-+Hounslow+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+Peter+Crawford+Biography.jpg" width="200" /></span></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Even when the room was abandoned, the lights, which were large, plastic and Disney style, were left lighted on the tree.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Like most of the decorations, these lights were pre-war, and consisted of 'antique plastic' bells, in various primary colours, with a small tungsten bulb. </span></div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-sXQp9bOONds/TyXGwgGJhnI/AAAAAAAAC94/8Zxmh3iQytg/s1600/paper-chain+Christmas+Decorations+-+Pears+Road+-+Hounslow+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+Peter+Crawford+Biography.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="98" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-sXQp9bOONds/TyXGwgGJhnI/AAAAAAAAC94/8Zxmh3iQytg/s200/paper-chain+Christmas+Decorations+-+Pears+Road+-+Hounslow+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+Peter+Crawford+Biography.jpg" width="200" /></span></a></div>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">The room itself was decorated with home-made, paper-chains of colored paper, and swags of twisted, crepe paper.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">These chains and swags were run from the central ceiling-rose to the edges and corners of the room.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Also, in the corners, were elaborate colored paper decorations, forming balls and bells, which were quite large, being nearly a foot in diameter. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Three very noticeable features of the Christmas season were the presence of fruit, nuts and alcohol, as these were all items that were absent for most of the rest of the year. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Peter's presents were, in the early days, not very spectacular, being mainly clothes and books, as Jane was obsessed with getting Peter to read.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">During the war (1939-1945) Christmas was very much 'on hold'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For those were serving abroad, Christmas could be a very miserable affair.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For John Crawford, in Egypt, Christmas had plenty of alcoholic cheer at Shepherd's Hotel in Cairo, but little of the atmosphere of an English Christmas.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For Jane, it was a very much a series of 'Utility Christmases', as London limped along, first with the 'Blitz', and then with the VI's and VII's.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">And, of course, rationing and shortages made Christmas very much a matter of <i>'make do and mend'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">When the war ended, however, things began to get back to normal.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Much to everyone's disappointment, though, rationing continued, with even bread (which had not been rationed during the war) being strictly rationed.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">It was only in the early fifties that Christmas, at last, began to return to normal.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Even the relatively wealthy middle and upper-middle classes, however, didn't indulge in the uncontrolled extravagance that is now, in the twenty-first century, considered normal.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">This was partly because people could not obtain a Christmas <i>on credit</i>, as people do now, but was also because years of privation had tempered people's appetites.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">With sales of alcohol a tiny fraction, nationwide, compared to now, most people had a relatively '<i>sober</i>' Christmas.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In addition, preparations for Christmas only began in the second half of December, and most Christmas shopping took place on the last few days before Christmas Day, with much of it centering on Christmas Eve.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">There was also a strong <i>religious element </i>to Christmas celebrations, with large attendances at Anglican and Catholic Churches for Midnight Mass, and Christmas Morning Services.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">For Peter, Christmas began in early December with a number of trips to Poulton's Toy Shop in Hounslow Broadway.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Although the trips were supposedly to buy one or two 'Britain's' toy soldiers, in reality Jane was checking to see which toys Peter was really interested in.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">In addition, there would be at least one trip to Baker Street, and then to the shops in Oxford Street - Selfridges, in Oxford Street and, of course, Hamley's in Regents</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Street to further detirmine the toys that Peter might like. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Later, of course, unknown to Peter, Jane and John whoul make their own trip to buy the toys that Peter wanted.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">'Cussons' Talcum Powder</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">On Christmas Eve, while Jane got on with preparing the Christmas meal, John would take Peter to the carol singing outside Murfits, on the Broadway, and then to Boots the Chemist (nothing like todays self survice stores), and Peter would be given a special Christmas allowance that he was allowed (<i>and expected</i>) to spend on a present for Jane - which was usually some 'Yardley' or 'Cussons' soap and talcum powder.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">With the sound of Carols under the Christmas tree in the highstreet, and the brilliantly lit shops, with their sparkling displays of Christmas goods, Christmas Eve was always a magical time for Peter.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">And, of course, there would be meetings with neighbors, and friendly shopkeepers, because in the early fifties everyone knew one another (and many, of course, had been together through the dangers and privations of the war).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">John would also buy the Christmas turkey.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">Turkeys, in the early fifties, were more popular than chicken because, surprisingly, chicken was extremely expensive.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "arial" , "helvetica" , sans-serif;">And the turkey was not frozen, but hanging from the outside of the butcher's shop, which had sawdust on the floor.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2t3FdKGYN8w/T0Vh5CyDxLI/AAAAAAAADvc/vBRzIxIvZmo/s1600/Triang+tank2.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="176" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2t3FdKGYN8w/T0Vh5CyDxLI/AAAAAAAADvc/vBRzIxIvZmo/s320/Triang+tank2.jpg" width="320" /></a><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-qsq544CAi6E/TyXB5TqjDDI/AAAAAAAAC9Y/OexPHzm97J0/s1600/Christmas+B%2526W+1.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="183" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-qsq544CAi6E/TyXB5TqjDDI/AAAAAAAAC9Y/OexPHzm97J0/s200/Christmas+B%2526W+1.png" width="200" /></a><br />
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The Christmas of 1953 was, for 'our Peter', just as wonderful as all his previous Christmases at 55 Pears Road had been.</div>
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The important Christmas toy of that year was a large, clockwork Triang Mimic Sherman tank.</div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eCRMIE_1qZI/T0VhOijZOMI/AAAAAAAADvU/lcYYSRJV2o0/s1600/Pin+Up+Christmas+Greetings+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+London+-+Hounslow+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eCRMIE_1qZI/T0VhOijZOMI/AAAAAAAADvU/lcYYSRJV2o0/s200/Pin+Up+Christmas+Greetings+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+London+-+Hounslow+-+Peter+Crawford.png" width="147" /></a>Not only could it roll over numerous obstacles on its caterpillar tracks, while the turret turned from side to side, but it also emitted puffs of white '<i>smoke'</i> from the gun barrel, as if it were firing shells.<br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OXq9m5mq7Bw/T0VjiT-P1kI/AAAAAAAADvk/0dp6n99sQZQ/s1600/Eagle+Annual+1953+-+Dan+Dare+-+Eagle+Comic+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+Peter+Crawford+Biography.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OXq9m5mq7Bw/T0VjiT-P1kI/AAAAAAAADvk/0dp6n99sQZQ/s200/Eagle+Annual+1953+-+Dan+Dare+-+Eagle+Comic+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+Peter+Crawford+Biography.png" width="160" /></a><br />
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Now Peter had already had his Coronation Coach, and many new toy soldiers, but Peter was 'spoilt', so there were more soldiers, and also a rifle and a couple of pistols.<br />
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And of course there was the inevitable 'Eagle Annual' (see left), featuring Dan Dare.</div>
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By the Christmas 1953 Peter had got through Dan's first, unnamed adventure, (Operation Venus - as it is now called) and he had also worked his way through the 'Red Moon Mystery' and 'Marooned on Mercury'.</div>
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1953 had opened with 'Operation Saturn' (see right) which would turn out to be a long story, and one that would have some considerable significance for Peter, as we shall see later.</div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">'A 1950s Christmas'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-90950493591098712312014-12-18T08:47:00.000-08:002015-07-29T15:11:48.838-07:00Spirit of England - Jeremy Thorpe - 'the worst Prime Minister we never had'<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">JOHN JEREMY THORPE</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">John Jeremy Thorpe, PC (29 April 1929 – 4 December 2014) was a British politician who served as leader of the Liberal Party from 1967 to 1976, and as Member of Parliament for North Devon from 1959 to 1979.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">His political career collapsed when an acquaintance, Norman Scott, claimed to have had a homosexual affair with him in the early 1960s, when homosexual acts were illegal in Britain.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In 1976, the scandal, not surprisingly, forced him to resign as Liberal leader.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Of course, Thorpe denied any affair with Scott.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Subsequently, Thorpe was charged with conspiring to murder Scott.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He was, much to most people's surprise, acquitted in 1979, shortly after losing his parliamentary seat in the general election.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Early Life</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Thorpe was born in Surrey, England, the son of John Henry Thorpe, a maternal grandson of Sir John Norton-Griffiths (both Conservative MPs), and a descendant of Thomas Thorpe, Speaker of the House of Commons from 1452 to 1453.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He was therefore a member of the minor aristocracy and the 'establishment', and remained as such until his eventual disgrace, brought upon by his trial (even although he was aquitted).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Thorpe was educated at Hazelwood School in Limpsfield, Surrey, Eton and Trinity College, Oxford, where he read Law.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He was politically and socially active at Oxford, and was president of the Liberal Club and the Law Society before becoming, inevitably, president of the Oxford Union in 1951.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He was called to the bar in 1954, whilst working as a TV interviewer.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Member of Parliament</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Thorpe was selected as Liberal candidate for Conservative-held North Devon in 1952. In the 1955 general election he halved the Conservative majority.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In the 1959 election, he won narrowly.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He remained MP for North Devon for the next 20 years, until defeated by a Conservative in the 1979 election.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Liberal Party Leader</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In 1965, he became Liberal Party Treasurer and, following Jo Grimond's resignation as leader in 1967, he won the resulting party leadership election with the support of 6 of the 12 Liberal MPs.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Thorpe's style, in contrast to Grimond's intellectualism, was considered by some to be youthful and dynamic, although he was sometimes ridiculed as being too gimmicky, as when, for example, he called for Rhodesia to be <i>bombed,</i> after the country's Unilateral Declaration of Independence in 1965.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He was a staunch defender of human rights as exemplified by his prominent role in the Anti-Apartheid Movement.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He was also a key figure in the campaign for Britain to join the Common Market.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">A ccolorful character, to put it mildly, Thorpe was renowned for his assortment of Edwardian suits, silk waistcoats and trilby hats, and was noted as a raconteur and impressionist.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">It should not, of course, come as a surprise to anyone that he was bi-sexual, as all the appropriate signs were present.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">His leadership of the party was not immediately successful.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The 1970 general election was calamitous for the Liberals; they fell from 13 seats to 6 (winning three, including Thorpe's, by tiny majorities).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Between 1972 and 1974, Thorpe led the Liberals to an impressive string of by-election victories, at Rochdale, Sutton and Cheam, Ripon, the Isle of Ely and Berwick - the so-called <i>Liberal revival.</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In the February 1974 general election, the Liberals gained 19.3% of the vote.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">During the campaign, some opinion polls at times placed the party as high as 30%.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">This was a great improvement over the 8.5% the Liberals attracted in the 1966 General Election before Thorpe's election as leader.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The February 1974 election resulted in a "<i>hung parliament</i>", with no party having a majority.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The Conservatives won 297 seats, Labour 301 (despite having fewer votes than the Conservatives), the Liberals 14, and the remaining 22 went to minor parties.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Conservative Prime Minister Edward Heath proposed a coalition government with the Liberals, and Thorpe as offered the post of Home Secretary.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Thorpe asked for significant commitments toward electoral reform, but Heath could not give them.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">As a Conservative-Liberal coalition would still have been seven seats short of a majority, its survival would have depended on the attitudes of the Scottish and Welsh nationalists and the Northern Irish parties.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The Liberal Party, and many who had voted for it, were not enthusiastic about keeping Heath in office and Thorpe declined the offer, fearing a coalition with the Conservatives would split his party.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">On 4 March the talks to form a coalition collapsed, paving the way for Harold Wilson and Labour to return to power as a minority government, after four years in opposition.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Personal Life</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Thorpe married interior decorator Caroline Allpass (1938–70), daughter of Warwick Allpass and Marcell William, in May 1968.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Their son Rupert was born in 1969.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Caroline Thorpe was killed in a car crash in June 1970.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Thorpe then married Marion Stein in 1973.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">A distinguished concert pianist, she had previously married the 7th Earl of Harewood, a first cousin of Queen Elizabeth II, and was much more of his class.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">She died in March 2014.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Relationship with Norman Scott</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Rumours about Thorpe's sexuality dogged both his university and his political career, and this was at a time when homosexual acts were illegal in Britain.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In 1961, Norman Scott (b. 12 February 1940), a former model, met Thorpe.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Scott was working as a stable lad.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Scott subsequently claimed that he and Thorpe had a sexual relationship between 1961 and 1963.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Scott's airing of these claims led to an inquiry in the Liberal Party in 1971 which, without going very deeply into the matter, exonerated Thorpe. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Scott continued, however, to make the allegations.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Attempts were then made to contain or <i>silence</i> him, but to no avail, until the fallout following the shooting of Scott's dog Rinka, by a hired gunman, brought the matter into the open.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">After further newspaper revelations, Thorpe was forced to resign the Liberal leadership, which did <i>not </i>end public or police interest in the affair.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Inquiries led to Thorpe, and three others, being charged with <i>conspiracy to murder</i> Scott.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">During the investigation, an antique firearms collector, Dennis Meighan, admitted to <i>providing the gun</i> used to shoot the dog, and confessed he had been hired by a representative of a person called "<i>a Mr Big in the Liberal Party</i>" to <i>kill</i> Scott for £13,500.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Meighan has claimed that his 1975 oral confession had been significantly abridged by the authorities when it was offered to him in written form: "<i>I read the statement, which did me no end of favors, but it did Jeremy Thorpe no end of favors as well, because it left him completely out of it.</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><i>So I thought, 'Well, I've got to sign this'</i>.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">It just virtually left <i>everything out</i> that was incriminating, but at the same time everything I said about the Liberal Party, Jeremy Thorpe, etcetera, was left out as well."</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The trial was scheduled for a week before the general election of 1979, but Thorpe obtained a fortnight's delay to fight the election, in which he lost his seat.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">One of the chief prosecution witnesses was former Liberal MP and failed businessman Peter Bessell, who claimed to have been present while the murder plot was discussed in the Liberal Party.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">One alleged plan had been to<i> shoot </i>Scott in Cornwall, and <i>dispose of the body</i> down a disused tin mine shaft.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Thorpe did<i> not</i> give evidence.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">His counsel, led by George Carman QC, argued that, although Thorpe and Scott had been friends, there had been no sexual relationship (?).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Carman claimed that Scott had sought to blackmail Thorpe and that, although Thorpe and his friends had discussed "<i>frightening</i>" Scott into silence, they had never conspired to kill him.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Mr Justice Cantley's summing-up was<i> widely criticized</i> for an alleged <i>pro-establishment bias</i>, and it made headlines when he had the temerity to describe Scott as "<i>a crook, an accomplished liar ... a fraud</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The four defendants were all <i>acquitted </i>on 22 June 1979.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Dennis Meighan was never called to give evidence, and remained silent until 2014, when he acknowledged his involvement and commented:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">"<i>It was a cover-up, no question, but it suited me fine</i>".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">If Thorpe had been a '<i>normal</i>' person - and he was far from that - he would have ended up in prison - for a long time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He was, however, one of the '<i>privileged few'</i>, part of the '<i>establishment'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Unlike Scott, who had drawn a '<i>short straw</i>' in life, Thorpe had been born with the proverbial '<i>silver spoon</i>', and was <i>'fire-proof',</i> and untouchable.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">That he was bi-sexual is almost certainly true, and it seems not only credible, but also very likely that he had a 'full-blown' homosexual affair with Scott.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">It is also almost certain that he was frantic to get Scott to '<i>shut up</i>', and he had the money, influence and inviolability to accomplish that.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Scott, it would appear, was very lucky to get away with his life.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">And would we have wanted a man of such low and despicable morality to have been Prime Minister ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Judge for yourself.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Later Life and Death</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Not long after the trial, Thorpe was diagnosed with Parkinson's disease and retired from public life.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">For many years, the disease was at an advanced stage.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He attended the funeral of Roy Jenkins in 2003.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">In 1999, Thorpe published his memoirs, 'In My Own Time', describing key episodes in his political life. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">He did <i>not</i> shed any light on the Norman Scott affair, and <i>never </i>made any public statements regarding his sexual orientation - but then he didn't really have to.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">On 4 December 2014, Thorpe died at his home in London of Parkinson's disease, aged 85.</span><br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-19993470213944559782014-12-09T07:59:00.005-08:002016-12-26T08:52:46.747-08:00The Spirit of England - A London Christmas - 2016<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Zac Sawyer 2016</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">A LONDON CHRISTMAS</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "georgia" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: x-large;">2016</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">Although an American, Zac has lived all his life in London, and has, therefore, seen many an English Christmas.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">And as the late John Lennon once sand</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "times" , "times new roman" , serif; font-size: large;"><i><b>'And so this is Christmas.....'</b></i></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;">'<i>So 2016 was a 'traditional' Christmas - as Pete and Zac put up their Christmas tree in the 'drawing room a day before Christmas eve, (rather than at the end of October or beginning of December as so many people do now), - and there it stayed, unadorned - and then, on Christmas Eve Pete spent the afternoon arranging the baubles, chains and other decorations - all in gold - and the lights (LEDs of course, white and blue on separate circuits), and finally crowning the tree with the German style glass finial (identical to that from the tree in the 1950s).</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: small;"><i>Garlands of gold tinsel were then put round the baroque mirrors and picture frames.</i></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Zac Sawyer 2016</span></span><br />
Portrait of Pete<br />
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<i><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">And then, in the evening, the presents were opened, (for Christmas Eve is the</span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"> traditional</span><span style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">time to open presents), and a new portrait of Pete was unveiled, and hung as a Christmas addition to the room.'</span></i></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i>Zac</i> in the 'Wonder Room' at Selfridges - in late November</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Oxford Street - London - England</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">For Londoners lucky enough to have enough money spare to spend on Christmas shopping Christmas shopping often starts early, and of course London has some of the best shops to be found for Christmas shopping.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i>Zac </i>at Tom Ford - Selfridges - in late November</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">Oxford Street - London - England</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i>Zac</i> starts his Christmas Shopping early - and one of his favorite shops is Selfridges in Oxford Street</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i>Zac</i> leaves Selfridges after a Successful Shopping Expedition</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">note there are no bags - Zac has his shopping delivered to his apartment</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">'<i>Zac</i> and Peter Pan'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Kensington Gardens - London - England</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">And of course, no Christmas would be complete without a visit to 'Peter Pan'.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">'Christmas <i>Zac</i> at the Hylas Fountain'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;">Regents Park - London - England</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><br /></span></span>
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><span style="font-size: x-small;"><i>'Dreaming of a white Christmas'</i></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">'White is always the Color of Christmas'</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><i><br /></i></span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><i>Zac</i> and Pete at selfridges - Oxford Street </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">- London - England</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">'Destination Christmas'</span><br />
<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;">and this is from two years ago</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><i>Zac</i> and Pete in Oxford Street </span><span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">- London - England</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: "trebuchet ms" , sans-serif;"><i>to be continued</i></span><br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-90015779686530030002014-08-01T12:39:00.002-07:002014-08-08T15:11:00.046-07:00Spirit of England - England and the Great War<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">ENGLAND and the GREAT WAR</span></div>
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<i>For a number of years after 1918 the First World War was called 'The Great War' in English, and 'Der Große Krieg' in German - simply because it was the great war.</i></div>
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<i>The had been no other war like it, and no one contemplated another war so devastating or so terrible.</i></div>
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<i>It was the 'War to end all wars'.</i></div>
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<i>But, of course, it was not, and 'part two' was to follow about twenty years later.</i><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The first world war was the first war to touch almost everyone in England since the brutal civil wars of the seventeenth century.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XazOaWVKMVs/U91DWbs844I/AAAAAAAAab4/3m3KH7hwSf4/s1600/zeppelin+raid+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XazOaWVKMVs/U91DWbs844I/AAAAAAAAab4/3m3KH7hwSf4/s1600/zeppelin+raid+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="112" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Zeppelin Raid</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The great war had a far greater impact on English families than the wars against Napoleon, or the numerous imperial wars of the Victorian era.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was, without a doubt, the '<i>Great</i> War', - and the numerous war memorials scattered all up and down the land were mute and tragic testimony to that fact.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And, although the war was fought on the continent, it was surprisingly near.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the east coast of England the windows and the crockery would rattle during the fierce bombardments on the Somme, and when the devastating British mines exploded, the sound could be heard even in central London.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And then there were the Zeppelin Raids ('Baby Killers') and the Gotha Bomber raids.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Gotha G.V was a heavy bomber used by the Luftstreitkräfte (Imperial German Air Service) during World War I. Designed for long-range service, the G V series was used principally as night bombers.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZKx5CQlSav4/U91Jva1TDBI/AAAAAAAAacg/sVp9R8EfF70/s1600/Ferdinand+Graf+von+Zepplin+-++Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZKx5CQlSav4/U91Jva1TDBI/AAAAAAAAacg/sVp9R8EfF70/s1600/Ferdinand+Graf+von+Zepplin+-++Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="157" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ferdinand Graf von Zepplin</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A Zeppelin is a type of rigid airship named after the German Ferdinand Adolf Heinrich August Graf von Zeppelin (8 July 1838 – 8 March 1917) a German general and later aircraft manufacturer, </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">who pioneered rigid airship development at the beginning of the 20th century. Zeppelin's ideas were first formulated in 1874 and developed in detail in 1893. They were patented in Germany in 1895. After the outstanding success of the Zeppelin design, the word zeppelin came to be commonly used to refer to all rigid airships. Zeppelins were first flown commercially in 1910 by Deutsche Luftschiffahrts-AG (DELAG), the world's first airline in revenue service. During World War I the German military made extensive use of Zeppelins as bombers and scouts, killing over 500 people in bombing raids in Britain.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The great war, with its coastal bombardments and air-aids was truly a 'people's war'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But to begin at the beginning - and a very muddled beginning its was ......</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The First of August</span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">1914</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vrZhK8Rx29g/U9vyBhRfo4I/AAAAAAAAaYY/noBvotGE5jI/s1600/Imperial+Russian+Eagle+-+Tsar+Nicholas+II+-+Imperial+Russia+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-vrZhK8Rx29g/U9vyBhRfo4I/AAAAAAAAaYY/noBvotGE5jI/s1600/Imperial+Russian+Eagle+-+Tsar+Nicholas+II+-+Imperial+Russia+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="193" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-5SeD4BoMBbs/U9vxw3jJ-DI/AAAAAAAAaYQ/pALbbHso0fM/s1600/Wappen+Deutsches+Reich+3+-+Reichsadler+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-5SeD4BoMBbs/U9vxw3jJ-DI/AAAAAAAAaYQ/pALbbHso0fM/s1600/Wappen+Deutsches+Reich+3+-+Reichsadler+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Today (1st August) one hundred years ago, in 1914, the German Empire declared war on the Russian Empire.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This declaration of war was related to the Schlieffen Plan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Schlieffen Plan was a 1905 German General Staff 'thought-experiment', which later became a deployment-plan, and set of recommendations for German Commanders to implement as they saw fit using their own initiative. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The German army would be deployed on the German-Belgian border so it could launch an offensive into France through the southern Dutch province of Maastricht, Belgium, and Luxembourg.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Alfred Graf von Schlieffen</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jWIVUUyGu-I/U9vySISTlLI/AAAAAAAAaYg/elToEdiTrls/s1600/Helmuth+Johannes+Ludwig+von+Moltke+1914+-+Lord+of+the+harvest+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-jWIVUUyGu-I/U9vySISTlLI/AAAAAAAAaYg/elToEdiTrls/s1600/Helmuth+Johannes+Ludwig+von+Moltke+1914+-+Lord+of+the+harvest+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="155" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Helmuth von Moltke the Younger succeeded Schlieffen in 1906, and became certain that an isolated Franco-German war was impossible, due to shows of Franco-Russian solidarity during the Moroccan and Bosnian crises.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moltke also became convinced that Italy would not join in, due to the increasing Italian-Habsburg enmity and the anticipation of British entry into a Franco-German war, in which the Italian economy would be highly vulnerable to blockade.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Under Moltke Aufmarsch I was retired, but in 1914 he attempted to apply the offensive strategy of Aufmarsch I West to the deployment plan Aufmarsch II West.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This plan was designed for a two-front war and so reduced the forces available in the west by a fifth, meaning that the German offensive was too weak to succeed.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Aufmarsch I Ost anticipated war between the Franco-Russian Entente and Germany, with Austria-Hungary supporting Germany and Britain perhaps joining the Entente.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This is near enough what actually happened.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">60% of the German army would deploy in the west and 40% in east.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">France and Russia would attack simultaneously, because they had the larger force, and Germany would execute an "active defence", in at least the first operation/campaign of the war.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">German forces would mass against the Russian invasion force, and defeat it in a counter-offensive, while conducting a conventional defence against the French force, but rather than pursue the retreating Russian force over the border, 50% of the German force in east (about 20% of the German army) would be transferred to the west, for a counter-offensive against the French attack force.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Krasnoye Selo</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so the scene changes to Russia.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 25 July 1914, the council of ministers was held in Krasnoye Selo at which <a href="http://petersrussia.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/tsar-nicholas-ii.html" target="_blank">Tsar Nicholas II</a> decided to intervene in the Austro-Serbian conflict, (which had arisen as a result of the assassination of Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand) and bring the matter </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">a step closer toward a general European war.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He put the Russian army on "alert" on 25 July.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although this was not mobilisation, it threatened the German and Austrian borders and looked , to all intents and purposes, like a military<i> declaration of war</i>.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://houseofosman.blogspot.co.uk/" target="_blank">Kingdom of Serbia</a><br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Kaiser Wilhelm II and <a href="http://petersrussia.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/tsar-nicholas-ii.html" target="_blank">Tsar Nicholas II</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 29 July 1914, <a href="http://petersrussia.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/tsar-nicholas-ii.html" target="_blank">Nicholas II </a>sent a telegram to Wilhelm II (The 'Willy-Nicky Correspondence'), with the suggestion to submit the Austro-Serbian problem to the Hague Conference (in Hague tribunal).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nicholas wanted neither to abandon Serbia to the ultimatum of Austria-Hungary, nor to provoke a general war.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In a series of letters exchanged with Kaiser Wilhelm of Germany (the so-called "Willy and Nicky correspondence") the two proclaimed their desire for peace, and each attempted to get the other to back down.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://petersrussia.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/tsar-nicholas-ii.html" target="_blank">Imperial Russian Troops Mobilise</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nicholas desired that Russia's mobilisation be only against the Austrian border, in the hopes of preventing war with the German Empire.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilhelm II did not address the question of the Hague Conference in his subsequent reply.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Count Witte told the French Ambassador Paleologue that from Russia's point of view the war was madness, Slav solidarity was simply nonsense and Russia could hope for nothing from the war.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Count Sergei Yulyevich Witte</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Count Sergei Yulyevich Witte (Russian: Серге́й Ю́льевич Ви́тте, Sergey Yul'evich Vitte) (29 June [O.S. 17 June] 1849 – 13 March [O.S. 28 February] 1915), also known as Sergius Witte, was a highly influential policy-maker who presided over extensive industrialization within the Russian Empire. He served under the last two emperors of Russia. He was also the author of the October Manifesto of 1905, a precursor to Russia's first constitution, and Chairman of the Council of Ministers (Prime Minister) of the Russian Empire.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 28 July, Austria formally declared war against Serbia, which eventually brought Germany into conflict with Russia and with France and Britain as Russia's allies.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Meanwhile, the Tsar's armies had <i>no</i> contingency plans for a <i>partial mobilisation</i>, and on 31 July 1914 Nicholas took the fateful step of confirming the order for general mobilisation, despite being strongly counselled against it.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sergei Sazonov</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 31 July, Russia completed its mobilisation against Germany, but still spuriously maintained that it would not attack if peace talks were to begin.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Germany then replied that Russia must demobilise within the next twelve hours.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In Saint Petersburg, at 7pm, with the ultimatum to Russia expired, the German ambassador to Russia met with the Russian Foreign Minister Sergei Sazonov, asked three times if Russia would reconsider, and then with shaking hands, delivered the note accepting Russia's war challenge, and <i>declaring war</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So why did Germany declare war ?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Well, as we have seen, Germany deeply <i>feared</i> a war on <i>two </i>fronts - East and West - Russia and France.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And Germany felt <i>encircled </i>- by Russia, France, and England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Germany also felt obliged to support it's fellow (German speaking) state, Austria-Hungary - although Germany had <i>no</i> real quarrel with Serbia.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, Germany, like Austria, and the <a href="http://houseofosman.blogspot.co.uk/" target="_blank">Ottoman Empire</a>, was nervous of Serbian (Slavic) ambitions in the Balkans - and feared the possibility of a Russian attack on <a href="http://houseofosman.blogspot.co.uk/" target="_blank">Constantinople</a>, and attacks on the Austro-German sphere of influence in the Balkans.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The main cause of the declaration of war by Germany, however, was Russia's unwieldly and unfocussed mobilisation which, while supposedly initiated to support Serbia, appeared to threaten not only Austria, but also Germany - and if Germany was attacked by Russia, then it could also expect to be attacked by Russia's ally - and Germany's old enemy, France.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The German declaration of war was therefore seen by the Central Powers as an act of self-defence.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And what was happening in London ?</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Herbert Henry Asquith</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Well Asquith had driven to Buckingham Palace early in the morning.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His intention, once he had got the King out of bed, was to ask the monarch to write to the Tsar, asking him to stop the mobilisation of the Russian forces.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-CslQWR5TlVk/U91I53T1l3I/AAAAAAAAacY/eh1EvMOmiF4/s1600/King+Emperor+George+V+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-CslQWR5TlVk/U91I53T1l3I/AAAAAAAAacY/eh1EvMOmiF4/s1600/King+Emperor+George+V+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="159" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King-Emperor George V</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">George V (George Frederick Ernest Albert; 3 June 1865 – 20 January 1936) was King of the United Kingdom and the British Dominions, and Emperor of India, from 6 May 1910 until his death in 1936.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And why should George, still wearing his brown dressing gown, do this ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Well, - Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, was George's first cousin (their mothers were sisters).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The letter itself had been written by Edward Grey, Secretary of State for Foreign Affairs, but it required the King's approval, and his handwritten prefix - '<i>Dear Nicky'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Did it do any good ? .... No !</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Herbert Henry Asquith, 1st Earl of Oxford and Asquith, KG, KC, PC, (12 September 1852 – 15 February 1928) served as the Liberal Prime Minister of the United Kingdom from 1908 to 1916. As Prime Minister, he led his Liberal party to a series of domestic reforms, including social insurance and the reduction of the power of the House of Lords. He led the nation into the First World War, but a series of military and political crises led to his replacement in late 1916 by David Lloyd George. </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-D8IhGpD9hr4/U91CFnntmmI/AAAAAAAAabo/tgnTpDwBHkQ/s1600/Edward+Grey+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-D8IhGpD9hr4/U91CFnntmmI/AAAAAAAAabo/tgnTpDwBHkQ/s1600/Edward+Grey+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="148" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Edward Grey, 1st Viscount Grey of Fallodon, Bt KG PC FZL DL (25 April 1862 – 7 September 1933), better known as Sir Edward Grey, Bt, was a British Liberal statesman. He served as Foreign Secretary from 1905 to 1916, the longest continuous tenure of any person in that office. He is probably best remembered for his remark at the outbreak of the First World War: "<i>The lamps are going out all over Europe. We shall not see them lit again in our time</i>". Ennobled as Viscount Grey of Fallodon in 1916, he was Ambassador to the United States between 1919 and 1920 and Leader of the Liberal Party in the House of Lords between 1923 and 1924.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">The Second of August</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: left;">On 24 July 1914 the Belgian government had announced that if war came it would uphold its neutrality. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-S--Z46_84GI/U91GGoeXeiI/AAAAAAAAacE/yg-vVc2a1Jc/s1600/State_coat_of_arms_of_Belgium+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-S--Z46_84GI/U91GGoeXeiI/AAAAAAAAacE/yg-vVc2a1Jc/s1600/State_coat_of_arms_of_Belgium+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.png" height="200" width="173" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kingdom of Belgium<br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 2 August the German government sent an ultimatum to Belgium, demanding passage through the country and, at the same time, German forces invaded Luxembourg.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Explaining that an imminent French attack on Germany was expected, the German ultimatum demanded - 'with the greatest regret' - free passage for its troops through Belgium.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was an essential precondition to the successful implementation of the Schlieffen Plan (see above).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Guarantees were also given for the safety and good treatment of the Belgian people and Belgian property.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite the polite tone of the request, Germany felt impelled to warn the Belgian government that failure to comply would automatically bring Belgium into military conflict with Germany.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Germany was justified in suggesting to the Belgian Government that there would be an imminent French attack as, on the 2nd of August 1914 France mobilized its forces and sent them to the German border.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-I0NGMjvBoY0/U91G162hciI/AAAAAAAAacM/tFoLkf9yCXQ/s1600/Greater+coat+of+arms+of+the+grand-duchy+of+Luxembourg+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-I0NGMjvBoY0/U91G162hciI/AAAAAAAAacM/tFoLkf9yCXQ/s1600/Greater+coat+of+arms+of+the+grand-duchy+of+Luxembourg+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="182" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In response, Germany crossed the borders of the Grand-Duchy of Luxemburg, which was an important step in the execution of the Schlieffen Plan.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">King Albert, King of the Belgians, however, in council, explained to his ministers that the German requests were a breach of Belgium’s neutrality and independence, and that it was time for the Belgians to defend themselves from Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The ministers, in a vast majority, agreed.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Belgian reaction, however, helped the public opinion in Germany to believe they were in a <i>defensive war</i>.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And now we move east.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Far beyond Central Europe (Mitteleuropa)</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">, the Ottoman – German Alliance was ratified on August 2, 1914.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The alliance was created as part of a joint-cooperative effort that would strengthen and modernize the ailing Ottoman military, as well as possibly providing Germany safe passage into neighbouring British colonies.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://petesreflections.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ltaDI8bb_sA/U90vT3afvSI/AAAAAAAAaac/xWMo_zPpdOM/s1600/OSMANLI+ARMASI+-+Imperial+Turkey+-+Ottoman+Empire+-+Osman+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="176" /></a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the eve of the First World War, the <a href="http://petesreflections.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Ottoman Empire</a> was in ruinous shape.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a result of subsequent wars fought in this period, territories were lost, the economy was in shambles, and people were demoralized and tired.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What the Empire needed was time to recover and to carry out reforms; however, there was no time, because the world was sliding into war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For reasons best known to the Ottomans, staying neutral and focusing on recovery did not appear to be possible, the Empire had to ally with one or the other camp, because, after the Italo-Turkish War and Balkan Wars, it was completely out of resources.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There were not adequate quantities of weaponry and machinery left; and neither did the Empire have the financial means to purchase new ones.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-YtxnEpM5Z60/U90uHjI5GfI/AAAAAAAAaaM/ONcTmkcrZ5c/s1600/Mehmet+Talaat+Pasha+-+Ottoman+Empire+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-YtxnEpM5Z60/U90uHjI5GfI/AAAAAAAAaaM/ONcTmkcrZ5c/s1600/Mehmet+Talaat+Pasha+-+Ottoman+Empire+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="171" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><a href="http://deutschland1880-1945.blogspot.co.uk/2013/04/the-last-german-emperor.html" target="_blank">محمد طلعت پاشا</a></b></span></div>
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<a href="http://deutschland1880-1945.blogspot.co.uk/2013/04/the-last-german-emperor.html" target="_blank">Mehmet Talat Paşa</a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The only option for the '<a href="http://petesreflections.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Sublime Port</a>' (Ottoman Government) was to establish an alliance with a European power; and at first it did not really matter which one that would be.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As Talat Paşa, the Minister of Interior, wrote in his memoirs: “<i>Turkey needed to join one of the country groups so that it could organize its domestic administration, strengthen and maintain its commerce and industry, expand its railroads, in short to survive and to preserve its existence</i>.”</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://deutschland1880-1945.blogspot.co.uk/2013/04/the-last-german-emperor.html" target="_blank">Mehmed Talaat Pasha</a> (Turkish: 1874 – 15 March 1921), commonly known as Talaat Pasha, was one of the triumvirate known as the Three Pashas that de facto ruled the Ottoman Empire during the First World War.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The problem was that most European powers were not keen to conclude an alliance with the ailing Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Only Russia seemed to have an interest – however, under conditions that would have amounted a Russian protectorate on the Ottoman lands.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was impossible to reconcile an alliance with the French: as France's main ally was Russia, the long-time enemy of the Ottoman Empire since the War of 1828.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Great Britain declined an Ottoman request.</span><br />
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<b><span style="font-size: small;">محمد خامس</span></b></div>
<a href="http://petesreflections.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ottoman Sultan Mehmed V specifically wanted the Empire to remain a non-belligerent nation, however pressure from some of Mehmed's senior advisors led the Empire to align with the Central Powers.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Mehmed V Reshad (Mehmed V Reşad or Reşat Mehmet) (2/3 November 1844 – 3/4 July 1918) was the 35th Ottoman Sultan. He was the son of Sultan Abdülmecid I. He was succeeded by his half-brother Mehmed VI.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Mehmed V hosted Kaiser Wilhelm II, his World War I ally, in Constantinople on 15 October 1917. He was made Generalfeldmarschall of the Kingdom of Prussia on 27 January 1916, and of the Empire of Germany on 1 February 1916.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Whilst Great Britain was unenthusiastic about aligning with the Ottoman Empire Germany was enthusiastic.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Germany needed the Ottoman Empire on its side.</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jw-Bvcaf4rE/U90y53eYMfI/AAAAAAAAaa4/6oaw-w79PNc/s1600/Baghdad_Railway++-+Ottoman+Empire+-+Central+Powers+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-jw-Bvcaf4rE/U90y53eYMfI/AAAAAAAAaa4/6oaw-w79PNc/s1600/Baghdad_Railway++-+Ottoman+Empire+-+Central+Powers+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="140" width="200" /></a><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Orient Express had run directly to Constantinople since 1889, and prior to the First World War the Sultan had consented to a plan to extend it through Anatolia to Baghdad under German auspices.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This would strengthen the Ottoman Empire's link with industrialised Europe, while also giving Germany easier access to its African colonies and to trade markets in India.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To keep the Ottoman Empire from joining the Triple Entente, Germany encouraged Romania and Bulgaria to enter the Central Powers.</span><br />
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b>سعيد حليم پاشا</b></span></div>
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Said Halim Paşa</div>
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<span style="font-size: small;"><b><a href="http://ufomeaningmystery.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">اسماعیل انور پاشا</a></b></span></div>
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<a href="http://ufomeaningmystery.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Enver Paşa</a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A secret treaty was concluded between the Ottoman Empire and the German Empire on August 2, 1914.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ottoman Empire was to enter the war on the side of the Central Powers one day after the German Empire declared war on Russia.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The alliance was ratified on 2 August by many high ranking Ottoman officials, including Grand Vizier Said Halim Paşa, the Minister of War Enver Paşa, the Interior Minister Talat Paşa, and Head of Parliament Halil Bey.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Said Halim Pasha (Albanian: 18 January 1865 – 5 December 1921) was a statesman who served as the Grand Vizier of the Ottoman Empire from 1913 to 1917. Born in Cairo, Egypt, he was the grandson of Muhammad Ali of Egypt, often considered the founder of modern Egypt. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">He was one of the signers in Ottoman–German Alliance. Yet, he resigned after the incident of the pursuit of Goeben and Breslau, an event which served to cement the Ottoman–German alliance during World War I. It is claimed that Mehmed V wanted a person in whom he trusted as Grand Vizier, and that he asked Said Halim to stay in his post as long as possible. Said Halim's term lasted until 1917, cut short because of continuous clashes between him and the Committee of Union and Progress, which by then controlled the Imperial Government of the Ottoman Empire.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://ufomeaningmystery.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Ismail Enver Pasha</a> (Turkish: 22 November 1881 – 4 August 1922), commonly known as Enver Pasha, was an Ottoman military officer and a leader of the 1908 Young Turk Revolution. He was the main leader of the Ottoman Empire in both Balkan Wars and World War I. Throughout his career, he was known by increasingly elevated titles as he rose through military ranks, including Enver Efendi (انور افندي), Enver Bey (انور بك), and finally Enver Pasha, "Pasha" being the epithet Ottoman military officers gained after they were promoted to the rank of Mirliva.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, there was <i>no</i> signature from the House of Osman (?) as the Sultan Mehmed V did not sign it.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Sultan was the Commander-in-Chief of the Army, as written in the constitution, this made the legitimacy of the Alliance <i>questionable</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This meant that the army was not be able to fight on behalf of the Sultan.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Sultan himself had wanted the Empire to remain <i>neutral</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He did not wish to command a war himself, and as such left the Cabinet to do much of his bidding.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b style="font-size: medium;"><a href="http://ufomeaningmystery.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">احمد جمال پاشا</a></b><br />
<span style="font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://ufomeaningmystery.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Ahmed Cemal Pasha</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The third member of the cabinet of the Three Pashas, Djemal Pasha, also did not sign the treaty as he had tried, unsuccessfully, to form an alliance with France.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://ufomeaningmystery.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Ahmed Cemal Pasha</a> (Turkish: May 1872 – 21 July 1922), commonly know as Djemal Pasha, was an Ottoman military leader and one-third of the military triumvirate known as the Three Pashas that ruled the Ottoman Empire during World War I. Djemal was also Mayor of Istanbul.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Alliance therefore was not universally accepted by all parts of the Ottoman government </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The <a href="http://ufomeaningmystery.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/legacy-of-ottoman-empire.html" target="_blank">Ottoman Empire</a> itself did not enter the war until German elements in the Ottoman Navy took matters into their own hands and bombarded Russian ports on the 29th of October 1914.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Third of August</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">1914</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-M_sRzDwsIiE/U95KdGcEhTI/AAAAAAAAac4/P2rFXngXfzY/s1600/Sir+Edward+Grey+-+Lord+of+the+Harvest+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-M_sRzDwsIiE/U95KdGcEhTI/AAAAAAAAac4/P2rFXngXfzY/s1600/Sir+Edward+Grey+-+Lord+of+the+Harvest+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="133" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://deutschland1880-1945.blogspot.co.uk/2013_05_01_archive.html" target="_blank">Sir Edward Grey</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The following statement was made, by the Foreign Secretary, <a href="http://deutschland1880-1945.blogspot.co.uk/2013_05_01_archive.html" target="_blank">Sir Edward Grey</a>, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to the House of Commons, late in the day:</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'I want to give the House some information which I have received, and which was not in my possession when I made my statement this afternoon.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is information I have received from the Belgian Legation in London, and is to the following effect:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"<i>Germany sent yesterday evening at seven o'clock a note proposing to Belgium friendly neutrality, covering free passage on Belgian territory, and promising maintenance of independence of the kingdom and possession at the conclusion of peace, and threatening, in case of refusal, to treat Belgium as an enemy. A time-limit of twelve hours was fixed for the reply. The Belgians have answered that an attack on their neutrality would be a flagrant violation of the rights of nations, and that to accept the German proposal would be to sacrifice the honour of a nation. Conscious of its duty, Belgium is finally resolved to repel aggression by all possible means</i>."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Of course, I can only say that the Government are prepared to take into grave consideration the information which they have received. I make no further comment upon it.'</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-LoTYWDWoj-E/U95MhUAEH8I/AAAAAAAAadE/XbYhpjYL5-4/s1600/Coat+of+arms+of+France+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-LoTYWDWoj-E/U95MhUAEH8I/AAAAAAAAadE/XbYhpjYL5-4/s1600/Coat+of+arms+of+France+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="131" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the afternoon, two days after declaring war on Russia, Germany declared war on France, moving ahead with a long-held strategy, conceived by the former chief of staff of the German army, <a href="http://alienspoliticshistory.blogspot.co.uk/2011/11/watershed-of-epoch.html" target="_blank">Alfred von Schlieffen</a>, for a two-front war against France and Russia.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Presented by the German Ambassador to Paris:</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">M. Le President, t</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">he German administrative and military authorities have established a certain number of flagrantly hostile acts committed on German territory by French military aviators. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Several of these have openly violated the neutrality of Belgium by flying over the territory of that country; one has attempted to destroy buildings near Wesel; others have been seen in the district of the Eifel; one has thrown bombs on the railway near Carlsruhe and Nuremberg. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">I am instructed, and I have the honour to inform your Excellency, that in the presence of these acts of aggression the German Empire considers itself in a state of war with France in consequence of the acts of this latter Power. </span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Q7MS50tzcro/U95JZPfcHDI/AAAAAAAAacw/RwHiFvgQBvY/s1600/Seal+-+Deutsches+Reich+-+Reichsadler+-+1914+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Q7MS50tzcro/U95JZPfcHDI/AAAAAAAAacw/RwHiFvgQBvY/s1600/Seal+-+Deutsches+Reich+-+Reichsadler+-+1914+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="160" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">At the same time, I have the honour to bring to the knowledge of your Excellency that the German authorities will retain French mercantile vessels in German ports, but they will release them if, within forty-eight hours, they are assured of complete reciprocity.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">My diplomatic mission having thus come to an end, it only remains for me to request your Excellency to be good enough to furnish me with my passports, and to take the steps you consider suitable to assure my return to Germany, with the staff of the Embassy, as well as, with the Staff of the Bavarian Legation and of the German Consulate General in Paris.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hours later, France made its own declaration of war against Germany, readying its troops to move into the provinces of Alsace and Lorraine, which it had forfeited to Germany in the settlement that ended the Franco-Prussian War in 1871.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With Germany officially at war with France and Russia, a conflict originally centred in the Balkans - with the assassination of Austrian Archduke Franz Ferdinand and his wife by a Serbian nationalist, in Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, and a subsequent stand-off between Austria-Hungary, Serbia and Serbia’s powerful Slavic supporter, Russia - had erupted into a full-scale European war.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-OwUWNSyPZiI/U95PNvEQwNI/AAAAAAAAadY/TaoLZBi51I4/s1600/Schlieffen+Plan+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-OwUWNSyPZiI/U95PNvEQwNI/AAAAAAAAadY/TaoLZBi51I4/s1600/Schlieffen+Plan+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Great+war+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="248" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://germany19001939.blogspot.co.uk/2013/06/deutschland-und-der-erste-weltkrieg.html" target="_blank">Schlieffen Plan - Open in new tab to view full size</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Also on August 3 1914, the first wave of German troops assembled on the frontier of neutral Belgium, which in accordance with the <a href="http://germany19001939.blogspot.co.uk/2013/06/deutschland-und-der-erste-weltkrieg.html" target="_blank">Schlieffen Plan</a> would be crossed by German armies on their way to an attack on France.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This threat to Belgium, whose neutrality had been guaranteed by a treaty concluded by a number of European powers - including Britain, France and Germany - in 1839, united a divided British government in opposition against Germany.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">That August, as the great powers of Europe readied their armies and navies for war, no one was preparing for a long struggle - all the participants were counting on a short, decisive conflict that would end in their favour.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TIPQ_Dge5f0/U95RGPIBHuI/AAAAAAAAadk/6RqVU2lVwu8/s1600/Kaiser+Wilhelm+II+-+Philipp+A.+L%C3%A1szlo1908+-+.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TIPQ_Dge5f0/U95RGPIBHuI/AAAAAAAAadk/6RqVU2lVwu8/s1600/Kaiser+Wilhelm+II+-+Philipp+A.+L%C3%A1szlo1908+-+.png" height="200" width="140" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"<i>You will be home before the leaves have fallen from the trees</i>," Kaiser Wilhelm assured troops leaving for the front in the first week of August 1914.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Even though some military leaders, including German Chief of Staff Helmuth von Moltke, and his French counterpart, Joseph Joffre, foresaw a longer conflict, they foolishly did <i>not </i>modify their war strategy to prepare for that eventuality.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One man, the controversial new war secretary in Britain, Lord Horatio Kitchener, did act on his conviction that the war would be a lasting one, insisting from the beginning of the war - against considerable opposition - on the need to build up Britain’s armed forces.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"<i>A nation like Germany</i>," Kitchener argued, "<i>after having forced the issue, will only give in after it is beaten to the ground. This will take a very long time. No one living knows how long.</i>"</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Field Marshal Horatio Herbert Kitchener, 1st Earl Kitchener, KG, KP, GCB, OM, GCSI, GCMG, GCIE, ADC, PC - (24 June 1850 – 5 June 1916) was a senior British Army officer and colonial administrator who won fame for his imperial campaigns and later played a central role in the early part of the First World War, although he died halfway through it. Kitchener won fame in 1898 for winning the Battle of Omdurman and securing control of the Sudan, after which he was given the title "<i>Lord Kitchener of Khartoum</i>"; as Chief of Staff (1900–02) in the Second Boer War he played a key role in Lord Roberts' conquest of the Boer Republics, then succeeded Roberts as commander-in-chief. His term as Commander-in-Chief (1902–09) of the Army in India saw him quarrel with another eminent proconsul, the Viceroy Lord Curzon, who eventually resigned. Kitchener then returned to Egypt as Sirdar and Consul-General. In 1914, at the start of the First World War, Lord Kitchener became Secretary of State for War, a Cabinet Minister. One of the few to foresee a long war, he organised the largest volunteer army that Britain, and indeed the world, had seen and a significant expansion of materials production to fight Germany on the Western Front</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Fourth of August</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And now, for England, the peace had ended...</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">PEACE</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Jc6FFLz4a0M/U95dkMg8IyI/AAAAAAAAaeI/ujh5UGW3Whc/s1600/Rupert+Brooke+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Literature+-+Peter+Crawford+copy.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Jc6FFLz4a0M/U95dkMg8IyI/AAAAAAAAaeI/ujh5UGW3Whc/s1600/Rupert+Brooke+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Literature+-+Peter+Crawford+copy.png" height="199" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Now, God be thanked Who has <i>matched us</i> with His hour, </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">And caught our youth, and wakened us from sleeping, </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">With hand made sure, clear eye, and sharpened power, </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">To turn, as swimmers into <i>cleanness leaping</i>, </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Glad from a <i>world grown old</i> and cold and weary, </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Leave the sick hearts that honour could not move, </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">And half-men, and their dirty songs and dreary, </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">And all the little<i> emptiness of love </i>!</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Oh ! we, who have known shame, we have found release there,</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Where there's no ill, no grief, but sleep has mending,</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Naught broken save this body, lost but breath; </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Nothing to shake the laughing heart's long peace there </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">But only agony, and that has ending; </span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">And the worst friend and enemy is but<i> Death</i>.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/english-literature-e-n-g-li-s-h-l-i-t-e.html" target="_blank">Rupert Brooke</a></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xALcDhhAtNU/U95foKjVhMI/AAAAAAAAaec/GikP8v-tK_M/s1600/Granchester+Meadows+-+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xALcDhhAtNU/U95foKjVhMI/AAAAAAAAaec/GikP8v-tK_M/s1600/Granchester+Meadows+-+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="184" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Granchester</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/english-literature-e-n-g-li-s-h-l-i-t-e.html" target="_blank">Rupert Brooke</a> (3 August 1887 – 23 April 1915) was an English poet known for his idealistic war sonnets written during the First World War. He was also known for his boyish good looks, which led him to be described as "<i>the handsomest young man in England</i>". <span style="text-align: right;">Brooke belonged to a literary group known as the '<a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/english-literature-e-n-g-li-s-h-l-i-t-e.html" target="_blank">Georgian Poets</a>', and was one of the most important of the 'Dymock Poet's, associated with the Gloucestershire village of Dymock, where he spent some time before the war.</span></span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-align: right;"><br /></span></span>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cncjQa35bTY/U95fck4GtOI/AAAAAAAAaeU/xNKb70vVs6c/s1600/Rupert+Brooke+Grave+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Literature+-+Peter+Crawford.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-cncjQa35bTY/U95fck4GtOI/AAAAAAAAaeU/xNKb70vVs6c/s1600/Rupert+Brooke+Grave+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Literature+-+Peter+Crawford.JPG" height="173" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rupert Brooke's Grave - Skyros</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="text-align: right;">He also lived in the Old Vicarage, Grantchester. </span></span><span style="text-align: right;"><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Brooke's accomplished poetry gained many enthusiasts and followers and he was taken up by Edward Marsh who brought him to the attention of Winston Churchill, then First Lord of the Admiralty. </span></span><span style="text-align: right;"><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He was commissioned into the Royal Naval Volunteer Reserve as a temporary Sub-Lieutenant</span></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: right;"> shortly after his 27th birthday, and took part in the Royal Naval Division's Antwerp expedition in October 1914. He sailed with the British Mediterranean Expeditionary Force on 28 February 1915, but developed sepsis from an infected mosquito bite. He died on 23 April 1915 in a hospital ship moored in a bay off the island of Skyros in the Aegean on his way to the landing at Gallipoli. As the expeditionary force had orders to depart immediately, he was buried at 11 pm in an olive grove on <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/english-literature-e-n-g-li-s-h-l-i-t-e.html" target="_blank">Skyros</a>, Greece.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A somewhat sterner response to the outbreak of war is to be found in <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/09/spirit-of-england-introduction.html" target="_blank">Binyon's 'Fourth of August'</a>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Endure, O Earth! and thou, awaken,</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Purged by this dreadful winnowing—fan,</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">O wronged, untameable, unshaken</span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Soul of divinely suffering man.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/english-literature-e-n-g-li-s-h-l-i-t-e.html" target="_blank">Robert Laurence Binyon</a>, CH (10 August 1869 – 10 March 1943) was an English poet, dramatist and art scholar. His most famous work, 'For the Fallen', is well known for being used in Remembrance Sunday services. Three of Binyon's poems, including "For the Fallen", were set by Sir Edward Elgar in his last major orchestra/choral work, the superb "Spirit of England".</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so we are left with the question: why did England declare war on Germany on 4th August 1914 ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And we may well ask the question, would Belgium or France have declared war on Germany if Germany had invaded England in 1914 ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many elements in the English establishment undoubtedly<i> wanted</i> war with the German Empire and the Ottoman Empire, in order to thwart the building of the Berlin to Baghdad railway, and thereby protect its access to the Indian Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Equally they feared Germany hegemony on the continent.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the years prior to the declaration of war a <i>fear</i> of German militarism replaced a previous <i>admiration</i> for German culture and literature.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-injxe8mfPGs/UwqWNO2U0wI/AAAAAAAAYKs/6zr5Qrck5Xk/s1600/The+Invasion+Of+1910+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-injxe8mfPGs/UwqWNO2U0wI/AAAAAAAAYKs/6zr5Qrck5Xk/s1600/The+Invasion+Of+1910+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" width="135" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"> 'The Invasion of 1910'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the same time, journalists produced a stream of articles on the threat posed by Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alfred Harmsworth had commissioned author William Le Queux to write </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the best-sellingn novel 'The Invasion of 1910', which originally appeared in serial form in the 'Daily Mail' in 1906, and has been referred to by historians as inducing an atmosphere of <i>paranoia, mass hysteria and </i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i><br /></i></span>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-V0cBsZHWYOc/UwqRXPHojQI/AAAAAAAAYKM/MlrLgURBDM8/s1600/Anti+German+Riots+1914+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="176" src="https://4.bp.blogspot.com/-V0cBsZHWYOc/UwqRXPHojQI/AAAAAAAAYKM/MlrLgURBDM8/s1600/Anti+German+Riots+1914+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Anti German Riots</td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the declaration of war, anti-German feeling led to rioting, assaults on suspected Germans and the looting of stores owned by people with German-sounding names.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Increasing anti-German hysteria even threw suspicion upon the English monarchy, and King George V was persuaded to change his German name of Saxe-Coburg und Gotha to 'Windsor', and relinquish <i>all</i> German titles and styles on behalf of those of his relatives who were British subjects.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Also in the England, the German Shepherd breed of dog was renamed to the euphemistic "<i>Alsatian</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">THE RAPE OF BELGIUM</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If England had been <i>completely</i> justified in declaring war on the German Empire, it undoubtedly would not have felt it necessary to mount a vigorous propaganda campaign centred on the concept of the '<i>Rape of Belgium</i>'.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-TQJinQXLKko/UwpxcrdNHPI/AAAAAAAAYIE/KGfPTlYUoMc/s1600/First+World+War+Atrocity+Propaganda+-+Rape+of+belgium+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+London+-+Hounslow+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-TQJinQXLKko/UwpxcrdNHPI/AAAAAAAAYIE/KGfPTlYUoMc/s1600/First+World+War+Atrocity+Propaganda+-+Rape+of+belgium+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+London+-+Hounslow+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="145" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">The Rape of Belgium</td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The invasion of Belgium, with its very real suffering, was nevertheless represented in a highly stylized way that dwelt on perverse sexual acts, lurid mutilations, and graphic accounts of child abuse of dubious veracity.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In England, many patriotic publicists propagated these stories on their own.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example popular writer William Le Queux described the German army as "<i>one vast gang of Jack-the-Rippers</i>", and described in graphic detail events such as a governess hanged naked and mutilated, the bayoneting of a small baby, or the "<i>screams of dying women"</i>, raped and "<i>horribly mutilated</i>" by German soldiers, accusing them of cutting off the hands, feet, or breasts of their victims.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English propagandists were eager to move as quickly as possible from an explanation of the war that focused on the murder of an Austrian Archduke and his wife by Serbian nationalists to the question of the invasion of neutral Belgium.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VKB-9WPYUkM/Uwp2SGfrpSI/AAAAAAAAYIw/DYJWWev8Wi0/s1600/Germanr+Uhlans+(Lancers)+-+1914+-++Der+Grosse+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+der+Erste+Weltkrieg+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VKB-9WPYUkM/Uwp2SGfrpSI/AAAAAAAAYIw/DYJWWev8Wi0/s1600/Germanr+Uhlans+(Lancers)+-+1914+-++Der+Grosse+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+der+Erste+Weltkrieg+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="177" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Kaiserlich Deutsche Ulanen</td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_Pf6rcCCXG4/UwpymBMcLII/AAAAAAAAYIQ/MHkM3lKJTMw/s1600/Louis+Raemakers+-+Thrown_to_the_Swine+-+The_Martyred_Nurse+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_Pf6rcCCXG4/UwpymBMcLII/AAAAAAAAYIQ/MHkM3lKJTMw/s1600/Louis+Raemakers+-+Thrown_to_the_Swine+-+The_Martyred_Nurse+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" height="200" width="138" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">'Thrown to the Swine'<br />
Louis Raemaekers</td></tr>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the infamous German phrase "<i>scrap of paper</i>" (referring to the 1839 Treaty of London) galvanized a large segment of English intellectuals in support of the war, in more <i>proletarian circles, </i>(that is <i>normal </i>circles) this imagery had far less impact.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example, Labour politician Ramsay MacDonald upon hearing about it, declared that "<i>Never did we arm our people and ask them to give up their lives for a less good cause than this</i>".</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As the German advance in Belgium progressed, English newspapers started to publish stories on German atrocities.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-I5Q_Ubs_bTA/Uwp4ylHZgZI/AAAAAAAAYJE/Hlbi8XYe598/s1600/Angels_of_Mons.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-I5Q_Ubs_bTA/Uwp4ylHZgZI/AAAAAAAAYJE/Hlbi8XYe598/s1600/Angels_of_Mons.jpg" height="200" width="133" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://alienspoliticshistory.blogspot.co.uk/2013/01/ufos-and-apparitions.html" target="_blank">The Angels of Mons</a></td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-u9t_3WLMDaY/Uwp4pIj9L9I/AAAAAAAAYI8/Ekz1adB-Se4/s1600/Crucified+Soldier+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-u9t_3WLMDaY/Uwp4pIj9L9I/AAAAAAAAYI8/Ekz1adB-Se4/s1600/Crucified+Soldier+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="165" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">The Crucified Soldier</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The English press, "<i>quality</i>" and tabloid alike, showed less interest in the "<i>inventory of stolen property and requisitioned goods</i>" that constituted the bulk of the official Belgian Reports.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Instead, accounts of rape and bizarre mutilations flooded the British press.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The intellectual discourse on the "<i>scrap of paper</i>" was then mixed with the more graphic imagery depicting Belgium as a brutalized woman, exemplified by the cartoons of Louis Raemaekers.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The English government regularly fabricated bizarre stories, and supplied them to the public, such as Belgian nuns being tied to the clappers of church bells and crushed to death when the bells were rung.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Reports paved the way for other war propaganda such as 'The Crucified Soldier', '<a href="http://alienspoliticshistory.blogspot.co.uk/2013/01/ufos-and-apparitions.html" target="_blank">The Angels of Mons</a>', and the 'Kadaververwertungsanstalt'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so the Germans became 'the Hun', and one of Europe's greatest cultures became - for the English at least:</span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>'the force that feeds desire on</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Dreams of a prey to seize and kill,</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>The barren creed of blood and iron,</i></span></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Vampire of Europe's wasted will…'</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i><br /></i></span>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-e5M4j5iF1sI/U-KBt9Gm9OI/AAAAAAAAafQ/iXb_3D6Dllg/s1600/1914-+st+class+iron+cross+-++Occult+History+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-e5M4j5iF1sI/U-KBt9Gm9OI/AAAAAAAAafQ/iXb_3D6Dllg/s1600/1914-+st+class+iron+cross+-++Occult+History+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="182" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">World War I Iron Cross</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The reference here to 'iron', although <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/english-literature-e-n-g-li-s-h-l-i-t-e.html" target="_blank">Binyon</a> may well have not known it, related to t</span><span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">he production of iron jewellery between 1813 and 1815, when the Prussian royal family urged all citizens to contribute their gold and silver jewellery towards funding the uprising against Napoleon during the 'German War of Liberation'.</span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In return the people were given iron jewellery such as brooches and finger rings, often with the inscription '<i>Gold gab ich für Eisen</i>' (I gave gold for iron), or 'F<i>ür das Wohl des Vaterlands</i>' (For the welfare of our country / fatherland), or with a portrait of Frederick William III of Prussia on the back - and hence the Iron Cross - and it should be noted that Napoleon was not only an enemy of Germany, but also of England.</span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And it should be remembered that France, England's main ally in the Great War, actually</span></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> wanted war </i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">with the German Empire, in a pathetic attempt to wipe out the</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> humiliation</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> it had experienced in the Franco-Prussian War (Deutsch-Französischer Krieg) - (19 July 1870 – 10 May 1871).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so the stage was set for the conflict.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">OVER BY CHRISTMAS</span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-cDAddls1auk/U-KDtrAin7I/AAAAAAAAafs/qIGNbv91oc4/s1600/French+Cavalry+leave+for+the+Front+1914+-+Deutschland+und+der+Erste+Weltkrieg+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-cDAddls1auk/U-KDtrAin7I/AAAAAAAAafs/qIGNbv91oc4/s1600/French+Cavalry+leave+for+the+Front+1914+-+Deutschland+und+der+Erste+Weltkrieg+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="175" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">French Cavalry in Paris leaving for the Front</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cq0yopdyEtQ/U-KDjh_XYfI/AAAAAAAAafk/hpkupEiJ7wY/s1600/German+Soldiers+leave+for+the+front+-+Geist+von+1914+-+Der+Grosse+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+der+Erste+Weltkrieg+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cq0yopdyEtQ/U-KDjh_XYfI/AAAAAAAAafk/hpkupEiJ7wY/s1600/German+Soldiers+leave+for+the+front+-+Geist+von+1914+-+Der+Grosse+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+der+Erste+Weltkrieg+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="132" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">German Infantry leaving for the Front</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany had told his troops, - "You will be home before the leaves have fallen from the trees,".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And in the rest of Europe most people were confident that the war would be over by Christmas - that is Christmas 1914.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What now seems strange is that in all the belligerent countries most people welcomed the war.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This is what <a href="http://meinkampfvol1.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/mein-kampf-brief-biography-of-adolf.html" target="_blank">Adolf Hitler</a> had to say about the declaration of war:</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-1ih9h10xJQI/U-KKiqLM18I/AAAAAAAAagE/clittjKoHwI/s1600/Adolf+Hitler+at+the+Front+WW1+c.+1916+-+Third+Reich+-+Occult+History+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-1ih9h10xJQI/U-KKiqLM18I/AAAAAAAAagE/clittjKoHwI/s1600/Adolf+Hitler+at+the+Front+WW1+c.+1916+-+Third+Reich+-+Occult+History+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="132" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://meinkampfvol1.blogspot.co.uk/2013/09/hitler-der-soldat-1914-1918-hitler.html" target="_blank">Adolf Hitler - der soldat</a></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2OCW3Co7ws8/UNYpDjf9VeI/AAAAAAAANOQ/RsQYOpXMcNQ/s1600/adolf+Hitler+-+1914+-+Declaration+of+War+-+Munich+-+Lord+of+the+Harvest+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="https://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2OCW3Co7ws8/UNYpDjf9VeI/AAAAAAAANOQ/RsQYOpXMcNQ/s200/adolf+Hitler+-+1914+-+Declaration+of+War+-+Munich+-+Lord+of+the+Harvest+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" width="198" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://meinkampfvol1.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/mein-kampf-volume-1-chapter-5.html" target="_blank">Adolf Hitler Berlin 1914 </a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'<i>To me those hours seemed like a release from the painful feelings of my youth.</i></span><br />
<i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Even today I am not ashamed to say that, overpowered by stormy enthusiasm, I fell down on my knees and thanked Heaven from an overflowing heart for granting me the good fortune of being permitted to live at this time.</i></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>A fight for freedom had begun, mightier than the earth had ever seen; for once Destiny had begun its course, the conviction dawned on even the broad masses that this time not the fate of Serbia or Austria was involved, but whether the German nation was to be or not to be.</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>For the last time in many years the people had a prophetic vision of its own future.</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Thus, right at the beginning of the gigantic struggle the necessary grave undertone entered into the ecstasy- of an overflowing enthusiasm; for this knowledge alone made the national uprising more than a mere blaze of straw.'</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="http://meinkampfvol1.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/mein-kampf-volume-1-chapter-5.html" target="_blank">'Mein Kampf' - Volume I - Chapter 5</a></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-7ZCpa6vGuvY/U-KI4CBTjQI/AAAAAAAAaf8/k2ac4J4F6mI/s1600/german+mobilization+1914+-+Mein+kampf+-+Hitler+-+Occult+Third+Reich.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-7ZCpa6vGuvY/U-KI4CBTjQI/AAAAAAAAaf8/k2ac4J4F6mI/s1600/german+mobilization+1914+-+Mein+kampf+-+Hitler+-+Occult+Third+Reich.jpg" height="153" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://meinkampfvol1.blogspot.co.uk/2012/11/mein-kampf-volume-1-chapter-5.html" target="_blank">German Troops Mobilising - 1914</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now previous European wars in the Nineteenth century, like the Franco-Prussian War (Deutsch-Französischer Krieg), the Wars of Italian Unification, and the Austro-Prussian War, to name a few, had been relatively short affairs, with fairly small causalities, and most people though that the war that began in 1914 would be similar, with fluid movements of infantry and cavalry, culminating in a fairly decisive defeat for one side or the other.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What no one expected was the development of 'trench warfare' and the use of huge conscript armies and massed artillery.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so the supposedly civilised, intelligent countries of Europe stumbled blindly into the greatest military disaster the world had ever seen - cheering enthusiastically all the way.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now it is not the intention of this blog to chart, in detail the history of the Great War, but rather to highlight the effect that the war had on the people of England.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to be continued</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-1gYFe6e0n6E/U8MDqzlTEcI/AAAAAAAAaSQ/htsExai-VL0/s1600/Star+of+India+and+Crown+-+Victoria+copy.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-1gYFe6e0n6E/U8MDqzlTEcI/AAAAAAAAaSQ/htsExai-VL0/s1600/Star+of+India+and+Crown+-+Victoria+copy.png" height="320" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-m6AQ9OkHibY/U8MFe01gh_I/AAAAAAAAaSc/8wQRYvf2EYk/s1600/Victoria+Regina+et+Imperatrix+-+Text+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford+copy.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-m6AQ9OkHibY/U8MFe01gh_I/AAAAAAAAaSc/8wQRYvf2EYk/s1600/Victoria+Regina+et+Imperatrix+-+Text+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford+copy.png" height="46" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">AN ENIGMA</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was the monarch of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until her death.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From 1 May 1876, she used the additional title of Empress of India.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NoD5nXUxLbc/U8MIt9S7vAI/AAAAAAAAaSo/V5INDTWMPTY/s1600/Royal+Coat+of+Arms+of+the+United+Kingdom+(Variant1)+-+English+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NoD5nXUxLbc/U8MIt9S7vAI/AAAAAAAAaSo/V5INDTWMPTY/s1600/Royal+Coat+of+Arms+of+the+United+Kingdom+(Variant1)+-+English+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="297" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Full Titles and Style</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> "<i>Her Majesty Victoria, by the Grace of God, of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland Queen, Defender of the Faith, Empress of India</i>."</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-65xLVsQZQ-Q/U8RN957juRI/AAAAAAAAaXA/NkIRqPxU0R4/s1600/William+IV+-++Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-65xLVsQZQ-Q/U8RN957juRI/AAAAAAAAaXA/NkIRqPxU0R4/s1600/William+IV+-++Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="130" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">William IV</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria was the last monarch of the House of Hanover, herself speaking with a distinct German accent.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In private she would converse with her mother, her governess Baroness Louise Lehzen, and her husband, Prince Albert, in German, which was, to all intents and purposes, her 'native language'</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria was an unlikely sovereign, being the first female monarch since the great Elizbeth, and substantially different in outlook and temperament from her Hanoverian forebears, particularly her two rather debauched predecessors, George IV and William IV.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Young Victoria</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria of Kent was the daughter of Prince Edward, Duke of Kent and Strathearn, the fourth son of King George III.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Both the Duke of Kent and King George III died in 1820, and Victoria was raised under close supervision by her German-born mother, Princess Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She inherited the throne at the age of 18, after her father's three elder brothers had all died, leaving no legitimate, surviving children.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The United Kingdom was already an established constitutional monarchy, in which the sovereign held relatively little direct political power.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Privately, Victoria attempted to influence government policy and ministerial appointments. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Publicly, she became a national icon, and was identified with strict standards of personal morality.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Py05Kj8IbhI/U8MJGrBlouI/AAAAAAAAaSw/FB5YPOy8SN8/s1600/Coat+of+Arms+of+Prince+Albert+of+Saxe+Coburg+und+Gotha+-++Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Py05Kj8IbhI/U8MJGrBlouI/AAAAAAAAaSw/FB5YPOy8SN8/s1600/Coat+of+Arms+of+Prince+Albert+of+Saxe+Coburg+und+Gotha+-++Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="155" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Prince Albert<br />
of Haus Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha<br />
(Saxe-Coburg and Gotha)<br />
as Prince Consort<br />
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Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, in 1840.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg und Gotha</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Prince Albert of Haus Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha (</span><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Saxe-Coburg and Gotha) (Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel; later The Prince Consort; 26 August 1819 – 14 December 1861) was the husband of Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland.</span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europe's ruling monarchs. At the age of 20 he married his first cousin, Queen Victoria, with whom he would ultimately have nine children. At first, Albert felt constrained by his position as consort, which did not confer any power or duties upon him. Over time he adopted many public causes, such as educational reform and a worldwide abolition of slavery, and took on the responsibilities of running the Queen's household, estates and office.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-g6FsmVs9Ogo/U8QMf6JbFYI/AAAAAAAAaU0/sJcqmwTMd2M/s1600/First+of+May+1851-+Winterhalter+-++Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Prince+Albert+-+Wellington+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-g6FsmVs9Ogo/U8QMf6JbFYI/AAAAAAAAaU0/sJcqmwTMd2M/s1600/First+of+May+1851-+Winterhalter+-++Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Prince+Albert+-+Wellington+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="259" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'First of May -1851' - Winterhalter</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He was heavily involved with the organisation of the Great Exhibition of 1851 (see right). Albert aided in the development of Britain's constitutional monarchy by persuading his wife to show less partisanship in her dealings with Parliament—although he actively disagreed with the interventionist foreign policy pursued during Lord Palmerston's tenure as Foreign Secretary.</span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">He died at the early age of 42, plunging the Queen into a deep mourning that lasted for the rest of her life. Upon Queen Victoria's death in 1901, their eldest son, Edward VII, succeeded as the first British monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha, named after the ducal house to which Albert belonged.</span><br />
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The nine children of Albert and Victoria married into royal and noble families across the continent, tying them together and earning her the nickname "the grandmother of Europe".<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-yihGcKq-BXE/U8QSvguLU7I/AAAAAAAAaVE/KNTKY1W5MjU/s1600/Badge+of+the+House+of+Windsor+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-yihGcKq-BXE/U8QSvguLU7I/AAAAAAAAaVE/KNTKY1W5MjU/s1600/Badge+of+the+House+of+Windsor+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="158" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Badge of the<br />
House of Windsor<br />
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As stated previously, Victoria was the last of the Hanovarians, and she and Albert founded the British branch of the Royal House of Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha.<br />
Later, in a rather pathetic attempt to sever links with German Royalty during the First World War, (which was also an extreme insult to the memory of Prince Albert) George V changed the name of the 'Haus Sachsen-Coburg und Gotha' to the rather prosaic 'House of Windsor'.</div>
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After Albert's death in 1861, Victoria plunged into deep mourning and avoided public appearances.</div>
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As a result of her seclusion, republicanism temporarily gained strength, but in the latter half of her reign, her popularity recovered.</div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JKaEEYEymQQ/U8MKNcV-FNI/AAAAAAAAaS8/EaK-JWsrnH0/s1600/Queen+Victoria+-+Diamond+Jubile+Portrait+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-JKaEEYEymQQ/U8MKNcV-FNI/AAAAAAAAaS8/EaK-JWsrnH0/s1600/Queen+Victoria+-+Diamond+Jubile+Portrait+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="151" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Queen-Empress Victoria<br />
Diamond Jubilee Portrait</td></tr>
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Her Golden and Diamond Jubilees were times of public celebration.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">JOHN BROWN</span><br />
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After the death of Prince Albert Queen Victoria had a very close relationship with a highland servant called John Brown.</div>
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John Brown (8 December 1826 – 27 March 1883) was a Scottish personal servant who was appreciated by many (including the Queen) for his competence and companionship, and resented by others for his influence and informal manner.</div>
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The exact nature of his relationship with Victoria was the subject of great speculation by contemporaries, and continues to be controversial today.</div>
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Prince Albert's untimely death in 1861 was a shock from which Queen Victoria never fully recovered.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John Brown</td></tr>
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John Brown became a good friend and supported the mourning Queen.</div>
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The Queen gave him gifts and created two medals for him, the 'Faithful Servant Medal' and the 'Devoted Service Medal'.</div>
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She commissioned a portrait of him.</div>
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Victoria's children and ministers resented the high regard she had for Brown, and, inevitably, stories circulated that there was something improper about their relationship.</div>
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Perhaps the most compelling evidence of the depth of Victoria and Brown's relationship comes from the pen of the Queen herself.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John Brown and Queen Victoria</td></tr>
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"<i>Perhaps never in history was there so strong and true an attachment, so warm and loving a friendship between the sovereign and servant ... Strength of character as well as power of frame – the most fearless uprightness, kindness, sense of justice, honesty, independence and unselfishness combined with a tender, warm heart ... made him one of the most remarkable men. The Queen feels that life for the second time is become most trying and sad to bear deprived of all she so needs ... the blow has fallen too heavily not to be very heavily felt...</i>"</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Queen was buried with a lock of Brown's hair, his photograph, and a ring worn by Brown's mother and given to her by Brown, along with several of his letters.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The photograph, wrapped in white tissue paper, was placed in her left hand, with flowers discreetly arranged so as to hide it from view. The ring she wore on the third finger of her right hand.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The statues and private memorials that Victoria had created for Brown were destroyed and discarded at the order of her son, Edward VII, with whom Brown had often clashed and who bitterly resented Brown for his influence on his mother.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Queen Victoria commissioned a life-sized statue of Brown by Edgar Boehm shortly after Brown's death.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The inscription on the base read: F<i>riend more than servant. Loyal. Truthful. Brave. Selfless than Duty, even to the grave</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When Victoria's son succeeded to the throne he had the statue moved to a less conspicuous site on the estate.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">THE INDIAN EMPIRE</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Map of the British Raj</td></tr>
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After the Indian Rebellion of 1857, the British East India Company, which had ruled much of India, was dissolved, and Britain's possessions and protectorates on the Indian subcontinent were formally incorporated into the British Empire.</div>
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The Queen had a relatively balanced view of the conflict, and condemned atrocities on both sides.</div>
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She wrote of "her feelings of horror and regret at the result of this bloody civil war", and insisted, urged on by Albert, that an official proclamation announcing the transfer of power from the company to the state "should breathe feelings of generosity, benevolence and religious toleration".</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The British Raj was headed by a Viceroy to represent the British monarch in India, and a Secretary of State for India in Whitehall to handle affairs in London end.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Flag of the Viceroy of India</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Queen Victoria, an ardent Indophile, had always taken a deep, personal interest in Indian affairs.</span><br />
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In the 1874 general election, Disraeli was returned to power. </div>
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He pushed the 'Royal Titles Act 1876' through Parliament, so that Victoria took the title "Empress of India" from 1 May 1876.</div>
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The new title - <i>Kaisar-i-Hind, Mallika-e-Hindustan</i> - was proclaimed at the Delhi Durbar of 1 January 1877.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Imperial Crown of India</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Imperial Crown of India was the crown of three British sovereigns as Emperors of India during the final decades of the Indian Empire. The crown is housed with the Crown Jewels of the United Kingdom. The crown was created for George V, in his position as Emperor of India, to wear at the Delhi Durbar of 1911. It is also the only crown of a British sovereign with eight half-arches. </span><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The need for the new crown lay in the tradition that the British crown jewels do not leave the United Kingdom. The crown was never, therefore, worn by Queen Victoria.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria saw the expansion of the British Empire as civilising and benign, protecting native peoples from more aggressive powers or cruel rulers:</span></div>
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"<i>It is not in our custom to annexe countries</i>", she said, "<i>unless we are obliged & forced to do so</i>."</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">No other title could have pleased Victoria more.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For the first time since the death of Prince Albert, the Queen presided over the state opening of Parliament.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">“<i>The Widow of Windsor</i>” was back in the public eye.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1887, Victoria had been on the throne for half a century.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Maharajas and maharanis from India were to visit her court during her Golden Jubilee, and the Queen wanted India represented in her court. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Accordingly, a regiment of Indian soldiers on horses were to be her personal escort, riding in front of her landau as she drove through London on her jubilee procession on 21 June 1887. The cavalry with their ornate uniforms, flashy turbans and flapping pennants splashed new colour into the pageant.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9mjfUgDlRsw/U8QczyiSxTI/AAAAAAAAaVg/15MtP0oP80o/s1600/Hafiz+Mohammed+Abdul+Karim+-++Waiter+-+Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-9mjfUgDlRsw/U8QczyiSxTI/AAAAAAAAaVg/15MtP0oP80o/s1600/Hafiz+Mohammed+Abdul+Karim+-++Waiter+-+Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="320" width="171" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Abdul Karim - khidmatgar</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Londoners had not seen anything like it before, and the Queen requested Indian servants in her entourage as well, to help her out when visiting potentates from India called.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The escorts and the servants would be the closest to the Queen’s person, so it also signalled to the world her faith in her Indian Empire - 'the Jewel in the Crown'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For the jubilee, carpets woven by prisoners in Agra’s Central Jail were sent to the Queen by the prison superintendent, John Tyler.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tyler also sent his assistant, a tall, handsome 24-year-old called Abdul Karim, as a “<i>jubilee gift</i>” to the Queen.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Karim was told he would enter the Queen’s service as an “<i>orderly</i>,” and he expected to ride behind her on a horse.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Instead, he became a <i>khidmatga</i>r (waiter) at her table, in scarlet or blue tunics with a pristine white or gold turban.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The young man was put off, until he became convinced that the Queen had a genuine affection for India and cared for her Indian servants as human beings.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She was always worried whether they ate well, and whether they kept warm in England’s chilly weather.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She had new tunics made for them, Indian style, but from tweed instead of cotton.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">ABDUL KARIM</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0ENBbelBd78/U8MWIbF8llI/AAAAAAAAaT8/MrdtFfEYYbM/s1600/Hafiz+Mohammed+Abdul+Karim+-++Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-0ENBbelBd78/U8MWIbF8llI/AAAAAAAAaT8/MrdtFfEYYbM/s1600/Hafiz+Mohammed+Abdul+Karim+-++Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="130" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">حافظ محمد عبد الكريم</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; font-size: small;">Hafiz Mohammed Abdul Karim</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Enter Karim ...</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">حافظ محمد عبد الكري</span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">م</span><span style="font-size: large;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"></span> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">- Hafiz Mohammed Abdul Karim CIE, CVO (1863–1909) - known as "the Munshi", was an Indian Muslim attendant of Queen Victoria.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He served her during the final fifteen years of her reign, gaining her maternal affection over that time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Karim was born near Jhansi in British India, the son of a hospital assistant.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1887, Victoria's Golden Jubilee year, Karim was one of two Indians selected to become servants to the Queen.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria took a great liking to Karim, and ordered that he was to be given additional tuition in the English language.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By February 1888 he had "<i>learnt English wonderfully</i>" according to Victoria.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After he complained to the Queen that he had been a clerk in India, and thus menial work as a waiter was beneath him, he was promoted to the position of "<i>Munshi</i>" - </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">an Urdu word often translated as "teacher" -</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> in August 1888.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In her journal, the Queen writes that she made this change so that he would stay: "<i>I particularly wish to retain his services as he helps me in studying Hindustani, which interests me very much, & he is very intelligent & useful</i>."</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">حافظ محمد عبد الكريم<br />
Hafiz Mohammed Abdul Karim</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Photographs of him waiting at table were destroyed, and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria appointed him her 'First Indian Secretary', showered him with honours, and obtained a land grant for him in India.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Queen-Empress Victoria and Abdul Karim</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Queen's own letters testify that "<i>her discussions with the Munshi were wide-ranging—philosophical, political and practical. Both head and heart were engaged. There is no doubt that the Queen found in Abdul Karim a connection with a world that was fascinatingly alien, and a confidant who would not feed her the official line</i>."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Karim was placed in charge of the other Indian servants, and made responsible for their accounts.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria praised him in her letters and journal. "<i>I am so very fond of him</i>" she wrote, "<i>He is so good & gentle & understanding all I want & is a real comfort to me</i>."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She admired "her personal Indian clerk & Munshi, who is an excellent, clever, truly pious & very refined gentle man.."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At Balmoral Castle, the Queen's Scottish estate, Karim was allocated the room previously occupied by John Brown, a favourite servant of the Queen's who had died in 1883.(see above)</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">حافظ محمد عبد الكريم<br />
Hafiz Mohammed Abdul Karim</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite the serious and dignified manner that Karim presented to the outside world, the Queen wrote that "<i>he is very friendly and cheerful with the Queen's maids and laughs and even jokes now...</i>"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The close relationship between Karim and the Queen led to friction within the Royal Household, the other members of which felt themselves to be superior to him.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Queen insisted on taking Karim with her on her travels, which caused arguments between her and her other attendants.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Karim's decorations included the 'Star of India' and the 'Companion of the Indian Empire' from Queen Victoria, and the 'Order of the Red Eagle' from the German Kaiser, Wilhelm II.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following Victoria's death in 1901, her successor, Edward VII, returned Karim to India and ordered the confiscation and destruction of the Munshi's correspondence with Victoria.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Karim subsequently lived quietly near Agra, on the estate that Victoria had arranged for him, until his death at the age of 46.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Historians agree with the suspicions of her Household that the Munshi influenced the Queen's opinions on Indian issues, biasing her against Hindus and favouring Muslims</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In her later life, Victoria was very much preoccupied with her Indian Empire, and this is reflected in her 'infatuation' with Karim, and the building of the 'Durbar Room' at Osborne House.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Durbar Room - Osborne House</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Durbar Room is named after an anglicised version of the Hindi word durbar.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This word means court.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Durbar Room was built for state functions, and decorated by Bhai Ram Singh in an elaborate and intricate style, with a carpet from Agra.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It now contains the gifts Queen Victoria received on her Golden and Diamond Jubilees.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These include engraved silver and copper vases, Indian armour and even a model of an Indian palace</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Indian associations of Osborne House also include its housing a collection of paintings of Indian persons and scenes, painted at Queen Victoria's request by Rudolf Swoboda.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There are both depictions of Indians resident or visiting Britain in the 19th Century and scenes painted in India itself when the painter went there for the purpose.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Osborne House was built between 1845 and 1851 for Queen Victoria and Prince Albert as a summer home and rural retreat.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Prince Albert designed the house himself in the style of an Italian Renaissance palazzo.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The builder was Thomas Cubitt, the London architect and builder whose company built the main façade of Buckingham Palace for the royal couple in 1847.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An earlier smaller house on the site was demolished to make way for a new and far larger house.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Queen Victoria died at Osborne House in January 1901.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following her death, the house became surplus to royal requirements, and was given to the state, with a few rooms retained as a private royal museum dedicated to Queen Victoria.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From 1903 until 1921 it was used as a junior officer training college for the Royal Navy known as the Royal Naval College, Osborne.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Today it is fully open to the public.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">LEGACY</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Victoria Memorial - Calcutta</td></tr>
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Around the world, places and memorials are dedicated to her, especially in the Commonwealth nations.</div>
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Places named after her, include the capital of the Seychelles, Africa's largest lake, Victoria Falls, the capitals of British Columbia (Victoria) and Saskatchewan (Regina), and two Australian states (Victoria and Queensland).</div>
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The Victoria Cross was introduced in 1856 to reward acts of valour during the Crimean War, and it remains the highest British, Canadian, Australian, and New Zealand award for bravery.</div>
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Victoria Day is a Canadian statutory holiday, and a local public holiday in parts of Scotland celebrated on the last Monday before or on 24 May (Queen Victoria's birthday).</div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">THE ROYAL BURIAL GROUND - FROGMORE</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Frogmore House, a Royal retreat, is also the site of three burial places of the British Royal Family: the Royal Mausoleum containing the tombs of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert; the Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum, burial place of the Queen Victoria's mother; and the Royal Burial Ground.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Mausoleum of the Duchess of Kent</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mausoleum of the Duchess of Kent</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This mausoleum within the Frogmore Gardens is the burial place of Queen Victoria's mother, Victoria of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld, the Duchess of Kent.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Mausoleum was designed by the architect A J Humbert, to a concept design by Prince Albert's favourite artist, Professor Ludwig Gruner.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the latter years of her life, the Duchess lived in Frogmore House and in the 1850s, construction began on a beautiful domed 'temple' in the grounds of the estate.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The top portion of the finished building was intended to serve as a summer-house for the Duchess during her lifetime, while the lower level was destined as her final resting place.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Duchess died at Frogmore House on 16 March 1861 before the summer-house was completed so the upper chamber became part of the mausoleum and now contains a statue of the Duchess.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Royal Mausoleum</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Mausoleum - Frogmore<br />
Windsor</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Mausoleum - Frogmore - Windsor</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The second mausoleum in the grounds of Frogmore is the very much larger Royal Mausoleum, the burial place of Queen Victoria and her consort, Prince Albert.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Queen Victoria and her husband had long intended to construct a special resting place for them both, instead of the two of them being buried in one of the traditional resting places of British Royalty, such as Westminster Abbey or St. George's Chapel, Windsor.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The mausoleum for the Queen's mother was being constructed at Frogmore in 1861 when Prince Albert died in December of the same year.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Within a few days of his premature death, proposals for the mausoleum were being drawn up by the same designers involved in the Duchess of Kent's Mausoleum: Professor Gruner and A J Humbert.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Section Thru Royal Mausoleum - Frogmore - Windsor</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Work commenced in March 1862.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The dome was made by October and the building was consecrated in December 1862, although the decoration was not finished until August 1871.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The building is in the form of a Greek cross.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The exterior was inspired by Italian Romanesque buildings, the walls are of granite and Portland stone and the roof is covered with Australian copper.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The interior decoration is in the style of Albert's favourite painter, the Renaissance genius Raphael, an example of Victoriana at its most opulent.</span><br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-hYvS3eHZAF0/U8RKEIdtk3I/AAAAAAAAaWo/fMtof7DJiz0/s1600/Royal+mausoleum+Sculpture+-+Victoria+and+Albert+-+Windsor+-++Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-hYvS3eHZAF0/U8RKEIdtk3I/AAAAAAAAaWo/fMtof7DJiz0/s1600/Royal+mausoleum+Sculpture+-+Victoria+and+Albert+-+Windsor+-++Queen+Empress+Victoria+-+Monarchy+-+Royalty+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="193" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The interior walls are predominantly in Portuguese red marble, a gift from King Luis I of Portugal, a cousin of both Victoria and Albert, and are inlaid with other marbles from around the World.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The monumental tomb itself was designed by Baron Carlo Marochetti.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It features recumbent marble effigies of the Queen and Prince Albert.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The sarcophagus was made from a single piece of flawless grey Aberdeen granite.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Queen's effigy was made at the same time, but was not put in the mausoleum until after her funeral.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Only Victoria and Albert are interred there.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Royal Burial Ground</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Burial Ground<br />
Frogmore - Windsor</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Since its inauguration in 1928, most members of the royal family, except for Kings and Queens, have been interred in the Royal Burial Ground, a cemetery behind Queen Victoria's mausoleum.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Indian Kiosk - Frogmore - Windsor</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Among those buried there are Prince Arthur, Duke of Connaught, and Prince Henry, Duke of Gloucester, as well as Prince George, Duke of Kent; the Duke of Windsor, who reigned as King Edward VIII before abdication; and his wife Wallis.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many members of the families of Prince Christian of Schleswig-Holstein and of the Marquess of Cambridge are also buried there.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Also in the Burial Ground is the cenotaph of Queen Maria of Yugoslavia, a great-granddaughter of Queen Victoria and wife of King Aleksandar I of Yugoslavia.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is also an 'Indian Kiosk' commemorating the end of the Indian Mutiny (1858).</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232;">to be continued</span></div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-89898660959316166092014-06-09T09:11:00.001-07:002014-07-07T10:33:00.684-07:00Rik Mayall - Comic Actor<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">RIK MAYALL</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Comic Actor</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Richard Michael "Rik" Mayall (7 March 1958 – 9 June 2014) was an English comedian, writer and actor.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall is best known for his comedy partnership with Adrian Edmondson, his over-the-top, energetic portrayal of characters, and as a pioneer of alternative comedy in the early 1980s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He appeared in numerous sitcoms including 'The Young Ones', 'Blackadder', 'The New Statesman', and 'Bottom'; and the big screen in comedy films 'Drop Dead Fred' and 'Guest House Paradiso'.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Early Life</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - age 17</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Richard Michael "Rik" Mayall - 1981</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall, the second of four children, was born in Harlow, Essex to John and Gillian Mayall.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He had an older brother, Anthony, and two younger sisters, Libby and Kate.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When Mayall was three years old, he and his parents - who taught drama - moved to Droitwich Spa, Worcestershire, where he spent the rest of his childhood, and performed in his parents' plays.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After attending The King's School, Worcester, Mayall went to the University of Manchester in 1976 to study drama, where he befriended his future comedy partner Ade Edmondson.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He also met Ben Elton and Lise Mayer, with whom he later co-wrote 'The Young Ones'.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">'The Young Ones' and 'The Comic Strip'</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Edmondson and Mayall gained their reputation at the Comedy Store, from 1980.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Apart from performing in their double act, '20th Century Coyote', Mayall also developed solo routines using characters such as Kevin Turvey, and a pompous anarchist poet named Rick. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This led to Edmondson and Mayall, along with Comedy Store compère Alexei Sayle, and other upcoming comedians, including Nigel Planer, Peter Richardson, French and Saunders, Arnold Brown and Pete Richens, to set up their own comedy club called "The Comic Strip" in the Raymond Revuebar, a strip club.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall's Kevin Turvey character gained a regular slot in 'A Kick Up the Eighties', first broadcast in 1981.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He appeared as "Rest Home" Ricky in Richard O'Brien's 'Shock Treatment', a sequel to 'The Rocky Horror Picture Show'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He played Dentonvale's resident attendant as the love interest to Nell Campbell's 'Nurse Ansalong'.</span><br />
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<a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-e7_aijrn4wI/U5XyjH1IvPI/AAAAAAAAaN4/RCspXiL5hd4/s1600/the_comic_strip_presents_five_go_to_rehabb+-+Rik+Mayall+-++Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-e7_aijrn4wI/U5XyjH1IvPI/AAAAAAAAaN4/RCspXiL5hd4/s1600/the_comic_strip_presents_five_go_to_rehabb+-+Rik+Mayall+-++Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="264" width="320" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall's television appearances as Kevin Turvey warranted a 'mockumentary' based on the character entitled 'Kevin Turvey – The Man Behind The Green Door', broadcast in 1982.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The previous year, he appeared in a bit role in 'An American Werewolf' in London.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His stage partnership with Edmondson continued, often appearing together as "The Dangerous Brothers", hapless daredevils whose hyper-violent antics foreshadowed their characters in 'Bottom'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Channel 4 offered the Comic Strip group six short films, which became the 'Comic Strip Presents...', debuting on 2 November 1982.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The series, which continued sporadically for many years, saw Mayall play a wide variety of roles.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was known for '<i>anti-establishment'</i> humour, and for parodies such as 'Bad News on Tour', a spoof "rockumentary" starring Mayall, Richardson, Edmondson and Planer as a heavy metal band.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rick Mayall - 'The Young Ones'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the time 'The Comic Strip Presents...' was negotiated, the BBC took an interest in 'The Young Ones', a sitcom written by Mayall and then-girlfriend Lise Mayer, in the same anarchic vein as 'Comic Strip'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ben Elton joined the writers.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The series was commissioned and first broadcast in 1982, shortly before 'Comic Strip'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall played Rik, a pompous sociology student, and Cliff Richard devotee.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite the sitcom format, Mayall maintained his double-act with Edmondson, who starred as violent punk Vyvyan.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nigel Planer (as hippie Neil) and Christopher Ryan (as "Mike the cool person") also starred, with additional, less satisfactory material written and performed by Alexei Sayle.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The first series was successful, and a second was screened in 1984.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The show owed a comic debt to Spike Milligan, but Milligan was disapproving of Mayall, and once wrote: "<i>Rik Mayall is putrid – absolutely vile. He thinks nose-picking is funny and farting and all that. He is the arsehole of British comedy</i>."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What Milligan didn't realise when he wrote this was that, after the 'Goons', he was one of the worst comedians on the British scene.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1986 Rik Mayall played the Detective in the video of "Peter Gunn" by Art Of Noise featuring Duane Eddy.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Later Career</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - Mad Gerald - Blackadder</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall continued to work on 'The Comic Strip' films.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He returned to stand-up, performing on 'Saturday Live' - a British version of the American 'Saturday Night Live' - first broadcast in 1985.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He and Edmondson had a regular section as "The Dangerous Brothers", their earlier stage act.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1985, Mayall debuted another comic creation.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He had starred in the final episode of the first series of 'Blackadder' (1983) as "Mad Gerald". </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - Lord Flashheart</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He returned to play one of his finest characters, Lord Flashheart, in the Blackadder II episode entitled "Bells".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A descendant of this character, Squadron Commander Flashheart, was in the 'Blackadder Goes Forth' episode "Private Plane".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the same episode, he was reunited with Edmondson, who played German flying ace Baron von Richthofen, the "Red Baron", in a scene where he comes to rescue Captain Blackadder from the Germans.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nearly a decade later, Mayall also appeared in 'Blackadder: Back & Forth' as Robin Hood.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1986, Mayall joined with Planer, Edmondson and Elton to star in ill-fated and poorly written 'Filthy Rich & Catflap', as Richie Rich in what was billed as a follow-up to 'The Young Ones'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He also appeared on the children's television series 'Jackanory'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His crazed portrayal of Roald Dahl's George's 'Marvellous Medicine' proved memorable.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - 'The New Statesman'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1987, Mayall played fictional Conservative MP Alan Beresford B'Stard in the sitcom 'The New Statesman' for Yorkshire Television, written by Laurence Marks and Maurice Gran.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The character was a satire of Tory MPs in the United Kingdom in the 1980s and early 1990s. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The programme ran for four series – incorporating two BBC specials – between 1987–94, and was a success critically and in ratings.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In a similar vein to his appearance on 'Jackanory', in 1989, Mayall starred in a series of bit shows for ITV called 'Grim Tales', in which he narrated Grimm Brothers fairy tales while puppets acted the stories.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1991, Edmondson and Mayall co-starred in the West End production of Beckett's 'Waiting for Godot', at the Queen's Theatre, with Mayall playing Vladimir, Edmondson as Estragon and Christopher Ryan as Lucky.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - 'Bottom'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Here they came up with the idea for 'Bottom', which they said was a cruder cousin to 'Waiting for Godot'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'Bottom' was commissioned by the BBC, and three series were shown between 1991–95.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall starred as "Richard 'Richie' Richard" alongside Edmondson's "Eddie Elizabeth Hitler". </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The series featured slapstick violence taken to new extremes.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The series gained a strong cult following.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1993, following the second series, Mayall and Edmondson decided to take a stage show version of the series on a national tour. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'Bottom: Live' was a commercial success, filling large venues.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - 'Guest House Paradiso'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Four additional stage shows were embarked upon in 1995, 1997, 2001 and 2003, each to great success.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A film version, 'Guest House Paradiso', was released in 1999.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - 'Drop Dead Fred'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall starred alongside Phoebe Cates in 1991's 'Drop Dead Fred' as the eponymous character, a troublesome imaginary friend reappearing from a woman's childhood.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He also appeared in 'Carry On Columbus' (1992) with other alternative comedians.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall also provided the voice of the character Froglip, the leader of the goblins, in the 1992 animated film adaptation of the 1872 children's tale, 'The Princess and the Goblin' by George MacDonald.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1993, he appeared in 'Rik Mayall Presents', three individual comedy dramas.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall's performances won a Best Comedy Performer award at that year's British Comedy Awards, and a second series of three was broadcast in early 1995.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He provided the voice for Little Sod in Simon Brett's 'How to Be a Little Sod', written in 1991, and adapted as 10 consecutive episodes broadcast on the BBC in 1995.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - Kehaar - Watership Down</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Since 1999, Mayall was the voice of the black-headed seagull Kehaar in the first and the second series of the animated television programme 'Watership Down'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following 2003's 'Bottom: Live tour', 'Bottom 5: Weapons Grade Y-Fronts', Mayall stated that he and Edmondson would return with another tour.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Shortly thereafter, however, Edmondson told the Daily Mail that he no longer wished to work on Bottom.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This effectively dissolved their nearly 30-year partnership.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall voiced Edwin in the BBC show 'Shoebox Zoo'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He released an '<i>in-character</i>' semi-fictionalised autobiography in September 2005, entitled 'Bigger than Hitler, Better than Christ' (ISBN 0-00-720727-1).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the same time, he starred in a new series for ITV, 'All About George'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall reprised the role of Alan B'Stard in 2006 in the play 'The New Statesman 2006: Blair B'stard Project', written by Marks and Gran.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By this time B'Stard had left the floundering Conservatives and become a Labour MP. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following a successful two month run in London's West End at the Trafalgar Studios in 2007, a heavily re-written version toured theatres nationwide, with Marks and Gran constantly updating the script to keep it topical, however, Mayall succumbed to chronic fatigue and flu in May 2007, and withdrew from the show. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 2009, Mayall played a supporting role in the British television programme 'Midsomer Murders', shown on ITV1 (and made by Meridian Broadcasting) as 'David Roper', a recovering party animal, and tenuous friend of the families in and around Chettham Park House.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">2010–2014</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In April 2010, Motivation Records released Mayall's England Football anthem 'Noble England' for the 2010 FIFA World Cup which he recorded with Coventry producer Dave Loughran.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the track Mayall performs an adapted speech from Shakespeare's Henry V In June 2010 the official BBC Match of the Day compilation CD (2010 Edition) was released by Sony/Universal featuring 'Noble England – Track 18', CD2.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall - Audi Books</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 2010 an audio book, narrated by Mayall, Cutey and the Sofaguard was released by Digital Download.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The book was written by Chris Wade and released by Wisdom Twins Books.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In this same month Mayall played the voice of Roy's Dad and recorded 5 episodes of animation</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In November 2010, Mayall provided narrative for five different characters for CDs accompanying children's books published by Clickety Books.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The books aid speech and language development by bombarding the child with troublesome sound targets.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He recorded introductions and narratives for the titles.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 5 March 2011, Mayall appeared on 'Let's Dance For Comic Relief', in which he came on stage and attacked Ade Edmondson with a frying pan during his performance of 'The Dying Swan ballet'. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 2012 Rik starred in 'The Last Hurrah'; a six-episode, full-cast audio series that he also co-wrote with Craig Green and Dominic Vince.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 15 October 2012 Ade Edmondson announced during an interview with BBC radio presenter Mark Powlett that the project was cancelled prior to production as he wished to pursue other interests.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In November 2012, Mayall narrated several children's books on the Me Books app such as 'The Getaway and Banana !' by children's illustrator and author Ed Vere.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In October 2013 he appeared in Channel 4 sitcom 'Man Down', playing the father of the protagonist Greg Davies, although only 10 years older than Greg.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rik Mayall and Barbara Robbin</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall married Scottish make-up artist Barbara Robbin in 1985, and the couple had three children: Rosie (born 1986), Sidney (born 1988) and Bonnie (born 18 September 1995).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The couple met in 1981 while filming 'A Kick Up the Eighties' and embarked on a secret affair which lasted until 1985.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the time, Mayall was in a long-term relationship with Lise Mayer.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Upon finding out Mayer was pregnant, Mayall eloped to Barbados with Barbara Robbin.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayer would later suffer a miscarriage.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall later maintained that, despite a long-standing feud, he and Mayer were friends.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 9 April 1998, Mayall was injured after crashing a quad bike near his home in Devon</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was in a coma for several days</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mayall was airlifted to Plymouth's Derriford Hospital, with two haematomas and a fractured skull.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During the following 96 hours, Mayall was kept sedated to prevent movement which could cause pressure on his brain.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His family was warned he could die or have brain damage.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Death</span><br />
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0oIdIyudu6Q/U5X935f71qI/AAAAAAAAaPc/15cPXIW0des/s1600/Rik+Mayall+2014+-++Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0oIdIyudu6Q/U5X935f71qI/AAAAAAAAaPc/15cPXIW0des/s1600/Rik+Mayall+2014+-++Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="171" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rik Mayall died on the morning of 9 June 2014.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His death was announced by his management team.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the 2005 poll the Comedians' Comedian, Mayall was voted among the top 50 comedy performers of all time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 2008, Mayall was awarded an honorary Doctor of Letters (DLitt) from the University of Exeter.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the 2010 poll "Top 100 Stand-Up Comedians", Mayall was placed 91st.</span><br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-24725899374999989002014-05-18T15:51:00.003-07:002014-07-14T14:47:49.262-07:00The Spirit of England - England and Germany - 1918-1945<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It should noted that the actual outcome of the First World War was a near thing, a far nearer thing than was the outcome of World War II.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While it is true that the United States entered the war on the Allied side in 1917, thus providing vast new potential sources of men and material, it is also true that Germany had knocked Russia out of the war at about the same time. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This gave the Germans access to the resources of Eastern Europe, and freed their troops for deployment to the West. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The German 'Spring Offensive' of 1918 actually succeeded in rupturing the Allied line at a point where the Allies had no significant reserves.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; text-align: justify;">(At about this time, British Prime Minister Lloyd George was heard to remark, "<i>We are going to lose this war.</i>" </span><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: justify;">He began to create a record which would shift the blame to others.)</span></div>
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The Germans were<i> defeated by exhaustion</i>, and this could as<i> easily</i> have happened to the Allies. </div>
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Although today it is reasonably clear that Germany fought the war with the general aim of transforming itself from a merely continental power to a<i> true world power</i>, the fact is that at no point did the German government know just what its peace terms would be if it won.</div>
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From England they would probably have demanded nothing but more African colonies, and the unrestricted right to expand the German 'High Seas Fleet'.</div>
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In Eastern Europe, they would be more likely to have established friendly satellite countries in areas formerly belonging to the defunct empires than to have directly annexed much territory.</div>
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However, Germany capitulated (but without the allies entering German territory), and an Armistice was signed.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Signing the Armistice</td></tr>
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The Armistice - an agreement to stop fighting - was signed between France, Britain, and Germany on 11th November 1918, bringing four years of fighting in the First World War to an end. </div>
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The Armistice began at on 11th November 1918 at 11am (French time) - the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month.</div>
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The Armistice itself was agreed 6 hours earlier at 5 am with the first term of it being that fighting would end at 11 am.</div>
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The Armistice was an agreement to end fighting as a prelude to peace negotiations. </div>
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The Armistice was designed to end the fighting of World War One, and the terms of it would make it impossible for Germany to restart the war, at least in the short term. </div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Undefeated German Troops Return to Berlin - 1918</td></tr>
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They were ordered to give up 2,500 heavy guns, 2,500 field guns, 25,000 machine guns, 1,700 aeroplanes and all submarines they possessed (they were originally asked to give up more submarines than they actually had !). </div>
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They were also asked to give up several warships, and disarm all of the ones that they were allowed to keep. </div>
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If Germany broke any of the terms of the Armistice, such as not evacuating areas they were ordered to evacuate, not handing over weapons or prisoners of war in the time-scales given, or causing damage to any individual or their property, fighting would begin again with 48 hours notice. </div>
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The Treaty of Versailles signed six months later would act as the peace treaty between the nations.</div>
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Treaty of Versailles</div>
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Article 231, of the Treaty of Versailles, - often known as the <i>War Guilt Clause</i>, - was the opening article of the <i>reparations section</i> of the treaty, which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers.</div>
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The article served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations.</div>
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Article 231 required</div>
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"<i>Germany [to] accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage</i>" during the war.</div>
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Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation, forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war.</div>
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German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy, while German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty.</div>
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The Allied leaders were surprised at the German reaction; they saw the article only as a necessary legal basis to extract compensation from Germany.</div>
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For Germany the Versailles Treaty was a disaster, and was a major contributor to period of political instability in Germany, which involved the rise of German Communism, and the development of the National Socialist Movement.</div>
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In England, the 1920s and 30s ushered in a period of political instability which was in many ways the result of the economic problems caused by the huge debts inured by England during the Great War.</div>
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In 1926 the General Strike brought home to the middle and upper classes the imminent danger of a left wing, Communist workers revolution.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The 1926 General Strike</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The 1926 General Strike in the United Kingdom was a general strike that lasted 10 days, from 3 May 1926 to 13 May 1926. It was called by the general council of the Trades Union Congress (TUC) in an <i>unsuccessful</i> attempt to force the British government to act to prevent wage reduction and worsening conditions for 800,000 locked-out coal miners. Some 1.7 million workers went out, especially in transport and heavy industry. The government was prepared and enlisted<i> middle class</i> volunteers to maintain essential services. There was little violence, and the TUC gave up in defeat.</span><br />
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Street violence and strikes in Germany also alerted the ruling classes to a similar possibility - and, in fact, there had already been a Soviet republic (Bayerische Räterepublik) declared in Bavaria in 1918, which had only been successfully suppressed by the use of the German army.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Members of the Bayerische Räterepublik Government</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Bayerische Räterepublik or Münchner Räterepublik was, as part of the German Revolution of 1918–1919, the short-lived attempt to establish a Communist state in the form of a Soviet workers' council republic in the Free State of Bavaria. It sought independence from the also recently proclaimed Weimar Republic. Its capital was Munich. On Sunday, April 12, 1919, the Communist Party seized power, with Eugen Leviné as their leader. Leviné began to enact communist reforms, which included forming a "<i>Red Army</i>", seizing cash and food supplies, <i>expropriating luxurious apartments,</i> and placing factories under the ownership and control of their workers. Leviné also had plans to abolish paper money (?) and reform the education system, but never had time to implement them. </span><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">At the suggestion of Vladimir Lenin, Leviné took hostages from among the Munich elite. On 30 April 1919, eight men, including the well-connected Prince Gustav of Thurn and Taxis, were accused as right-wing spies and executed. The Thule Society's secretary, Countess Hella von Westarp, was also murdered.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8Yll_62H9SI/U3pszyeFIHI/AAAAAAAAZFo/uSSiB690uLI/s1600/Kaiser+Wilhelm+II+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-8Yll_62H9SI/U3pszyeFIHI/AAAAAAAAZFo/uSSiB690uLI/s1600/Kaiser+Wilhelm+II+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="152" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"> Kaiser Wilhelm II</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King-Emperor George V</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While the King-Emperor George V remained King-Emperor, his cousin, Kaiser Wilhelm II was forced to abdicate.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With Germany actively seeking an armistice and revolution threatening, calls for Kaiser Wilhelm II to abdicate grew in intensity. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilhelm was himself deeply reluctant to make such a sacrifice, instead expressing a preference to lead his armies back into Germany from the Western Front. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Upon being informed by his military advisers that the army could not be relied upon not to harm him Wilhelm abandoned the notion.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Philipp Scheidemann</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Chancellor Prince Max von Baden</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilhelm's abdication was announced by Chancellor Prince Max von Baden in a 9 November 1918 proclamation - <i>before</i> Wilhelm had in fact consented to abdicate (but after Social Democrat Philipp Scheidemann had announced the Kaiser's departure from the balcony of the Reichstag). </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Faced with a '<i>fait accompli</i>', Wilhelm formally abdicated and went into exile in Holland.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Having announced the Kaiser's abdication Prince Max resigned, handing power to incoming Chancellor Friedrich Ebert who, in statements issued on 10 November and 17 November, appealed for public calm, and reassured the German public that the incoming government would be "<i>a government of the people</i>".</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Chancellor Friedrich Ebert</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Feldmarschall Paul von Hindenburg</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Prince Max, however, was not the actual instigator of the Kaiser's abdication - that person was Feldmarschall </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Paul Ludwig von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg, the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Chief of the General Staff from 1916.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hindenburg was a Prussian Junker.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Junkers were the members of the landed nobility in Prussia. They owned great estates that were maintained and worked by peasants with few rights. They were a dominant factor in Prussian and, after 1871, German military, political and diplomatic leadership. The most famous Junker was Chancellor Otto von Bismarck. Those in what became East Germany were expelled by the Soviets after 1944, and their lands confiscated.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-f_QvKnS1GtY/U3pyIblj5aI/AAAAAAAAZGQ/H93YWl4nTjk/s1600/Vicky.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-f_QvKnS1GtY/U3pyIblj5aI/AAAAAAAAZGQ/H93YWl4nTjk/s1600/Vicky.png" height="200" width="133" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kaiserin Viktoria</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There was no equivalent to the Prussian Junker class in England, despite the fact the <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Queen Victoria</a>'s daughter, Vicky (Kaiserin Viktoria - Kaiser Wilhelm II's mother)</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">, had married into the Prussian Royal family, who were descended from Prussian Junkers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Prince Albert</a>, Queen Victoria's German husband, of course, was not Prussian, and like most Bavarians and Thuringians, had a hearty dislike of Prussia and the Prussians.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So, the English/German Royal family were nice, gemütliche Bavarians, while the German/German Royal family were barbarian Huns.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adler der Weimarer Republik<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately, for those who were not enamoured of the Prussians, the new German Nation, usually referred to as the Weimar Republic, was led by a Prussian Junker, who for most of the Republic's life ruled by presidential decree.<span class="Apple-tab-span" style="white-space: pre;"> </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And that Junker, of course, was Paul Ludwig von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg - who had got rid of the Kaiser, and who had already been virtual dictator of Germany since 1916.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Weimarer Republik is the name given to the federal republic and semi-presidential representative democracy established in 1919 in Germany to replace the imperial form of government. It is named after Weimar, the city where the constitutional assembly took place. During this period, and well into the succeeding era of the Third Reich, the official name of the state was Deutsches Reich, which continued on from the pre-1918 Imperial period.</span>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was all <i>very</i> dramatic, and very <i>continental</i>, but in England things carried on in the same old way, almost as if there hadn't been a war.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2013/01/england-in-twenties-and-thirties.html" target="_blank">ENGLAND in the 20s and 30s</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The period of the 1920s and 30s was, however, one of the strangest and most significant episodes in the whole of English history, but very few people living at the time realised that simple fact.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Robert Graves and Alan Hodge wrote a book about the period and called it 'The Long Weekend' - which in one sense was very appropriate, despite the fact that it was a period of unprecedented change.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">People, of course, were well aware of what was happening on the Continent, and particularly in Germany.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While the economy had been unstable, in England there had been no sign of the 'hyper-inflation' and unemployment that had ruined so many in Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And it was during the economic turmoil of the 20s that the National Socialist Party began to gain support in Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Right-wing politics, however, was not unique to Germany, and at precisely the same time right wing movements began to develop in Eggland, among them the British Fascists, the</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Imperial Fascist League, and probably best known, t</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">he British Union of Fascists.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2013/11/copyright-peter-crawford-2013-english.html" target="_blank">ENGLISH FASCISM</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In England, however, right wing movements<i> never</i> gained a large following.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It has been suggested that this is related to certain aspects of the English character - but this is <i>not</i> the case.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Britannia<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sir Oswald Moseley</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If England had been on the losing side in the Great War, and if England had lost<i> all</i> of its Empire, and if England had felt<i> threatened</i> by <i>malign foreign influence</i>, then undoubtedly England would have had a right-wing nationalist government, probably led by Sir Oswald Moseley.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But the English felt<i> safe </i>in the knowledge that they '<i>ruled the waves</i>' and had an '<i>Empire on which the sun never set</i>', and that they were a '<i>great powe</i>r' - or perhaps<i> the</i> great power.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Of course they were<i> not</i> safe at all - and were living in a <i>'fools paradise</i>', as the would soon discover<i> after</i> 1945.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In Germany, however, most people fel<i>t humiliated</i> by the loss of the war, the loss of their Empire (and particularly their African colonies), and the destruction of their currency and economy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Adolf Hitler, of course, promised to restore all these losses, and make Germany once again a '<i>great power</i>', and possibly <i>the</i> great power.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lord Sempill</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And in England, many influential individuals felt that Germany had been<i> harshly treated </i>(particularly by the French - England's traditional enemy), and these individuals were not only right-wing agitators, but in many cases eminent members of academia, and members of the upper classes and the aristocracy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Included among those sympathetic to National Socialism are such well known individuals as the 5th Duke of Westminster, the second Baron Redesdale (the father of the Mitford sisters - including Unity Mitford - see below) and the famous aviator Lord Sempill who was later suspected of spying for the Japanese.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">William Francis Forbes-Sempill, 19th Lord Sempill AFC, AFRAeS, (24 September 1893 – 30 December 1965) was a British (Scottish) peer and record-breaking air pioneer.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">David Bertram Ogilvy Freeman-Mitford,</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">David Bertram Ogilvy Freeman-Mitford, 2nd Baron Redesdale (13 March 1878 – 17 March 1958), was an English landowner and was the father of the Mitford sisters, in whose various novels and memoirs he is depicted. Redesdale was an instinctive xenophobe: he came back from World War I with a dislike of the French and a deep hatred of the Germans. Thus he was initially scornful of the enthusiasm shown by his daughters Diana and Unity for National Socialism and Adolf Hitler. In November 1938, however, the Redesdales accompanied their daughters to Germany, where they attended the Nuremberg Rally and met Hitler, with whom Unity and Diana were already acquainted. Both the Redesdales were immediately won over by Hitler's apparent charm and his declarations of Anglophilia. Redesdale later spoke in the House of Lords in favour of the Austrian Anschluss and of returning Germany's colonies, and became a strong supporter of Neville Chamberlain's policy of appeasement towards Germany. Lady Redesdale went further, writing articles in praise of Hitler and in support of National Socialism.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Diana Mitford and Sir Oswald Moseley</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Diana and Unity Mitford</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Unity Valkyrie Mitford (8 August 1914 – 28 May 1948), styled The Hon. Unity Mitford, was an aristocratic English socialite who was a devotee of Adolf Hitler. </span><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In Britain and in Germany, she was a prominent and public supporter of National Socialism and from 1936, a part of Hitler's inner circle of friends and confidants for five years. Following the declaration of war on Germany by England in 1939 Unity Mitford attempted suicide. </span><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Her sister Diana married to Oswald Mosley, leader of the British Union of Fascists. </span><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">They married in secret in Germany on 6 October 1936 in the Berlin home of Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda Joseph Goebbels. Adolf Hitler was one of the guests.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Others include the Earl of Galloway, Lord Carnegie, Lord Ronald Graham and William Joyce.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The were numerous organisations set up to support the interests of the Third Reich in England; the most prominent being the Right Club, which was set up by Captain Archibald Ramsay MP, an outspoken anti-Semite, a few months before the war in May 1939, "t<i>o oppose and expose the activities of Organised Jewry</i>".</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Captain Archibald Henry Maule Ramsay </td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Captain Archibald Henry Maule Ramsay (4 May 1894 – 11 March 1955) was a British Army officer who later went into politics as a Scottish Unionist Member of Parliament (MP). From the late 1930s he developed increasingly strident antisemitic views. In 1940, after his involvement with a suspected spy at the United States embassy, he became the only British MP to be interned under Defence Regulation 18B.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In meetings chaired by the Duke of Wellington it sought to influence government policy to stop war with Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unlike the populist British Union of Fascists, led by the charismatic Sir Oswald Mosley, the Right Club was exclusive.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Its members were aristocrats and Members of Parliament, academics, civil servants, clerics and the rich, wealthy and powerful.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Some of the men had distinguished themselves in the 1914-18 war, and saw themselves as patriots.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Members and benefactors included Princess Blucher, Sir Ernest Bennett, Prince Turka Galitzine, Sir Alexander Walker, then the head of the Johnnie Walker whisky dynasty,</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> First World War military hero Commander E H Cole.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MPs included Sir James Edmondson, Colonel Charles I Kerr and John M'Kie.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King Edward VIII</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the time, from King Edward VIII downwards, there was a widespread view that only a powerful Germany could hold back the <i>threat of Bolshevism</i>, and that Britain should be supporting Hitler, and not preparing to attack him.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">His Majesty, Edward the Eighth, by the Grace of God, of Great Britain, Ireland, and of the British Dominions beyond the Seas, King, Defender of the Faith, Emperor of India. (Edward Albert Christian George Andrew Patrick David; later the Duke of Windsor; 23 June 1894 – 28 May 1972) was King of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Empire, and Emperor of India, from 20 January 1936 until his abdication on 11 December 1936. Edwards abdication had more to do with his 'style' of kingship rather than his decision to marry Wallis Simpson.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">1st Earl of Halifax</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This attitude is exemplified by the address given by Lord Halifax, the then British Deputy Prime Minister - and later Foreign Secretary - in 1937'</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>"Herr Chancellor, on behalf of the British Government I congratulate you on crushing communism in Germany and standing as a bulwark against Russi</i>a".</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Edward Frederick Lindley Wood, 1st Earl of Halifax, KG OM GCSI GCMG GCIE TD PC (16 April 1881 – 23 December 1959), known as The Lord Irwin from 1925 until 1934 and as The Viscount Halifax from 1934 until 1944, was one of the most senior British Conservative politicians of the 1930s. He held several senior ministerial posts during this time, most notably that of Foreign Secretary between 1938 and 1940.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Harold Sidney Harmsworth<br />
1st Viscount Rothermere</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">As such, he is often regarded as one of the architects of the policy of appeasement prior to World War II. During the war, he served as British Ambassador in Washington.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And in November 1933 Lord Rothermore wrote that:</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"<i>The sturdy young Nazi's are Europe's guardians against the Communist danger.</i>"</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Harold Sidney Harmsworth, 1st Viscount Rothermere, Bt. (26 April 1868 – 26 November 1940) was a highly successful British newspaper proprietor, owner of Associated Newspapers Ltd. He is known in particular, with his brother Alfred Harmsworth, the later Viscount Northcliffe, for the development of the Daily Mail and Daily Mirror. He was a pioneer of popular journalism.</span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">During the 1930s, he was known to be a supporter of Germany, purportedly having become convinced that the National Socialist Party would help restore the German monarchy. He cultivated contacts to promote British support for Germany.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Neville Chamberlain</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Not only were the aristocracy and the governing classes positive in their attitude towards National Socialism and the Third Reich, but during the 1930's the English public at large had similar views, and it was these views that and made Chamberlain an overnight hero.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Treaty of Versailles</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To understand this one must look at the contemporary perceptions the English people had of the Treaty of Versailles, and the situation of post-World War I Germany in Europe.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It must be conceded that Chamberlain made, what seemed to be at the time, a sensible decision, not only as a democratically elected politician, but as the leader of a country which was starting to find itself entangled in the start of another European war for which, it was felt at the time, both of the major Western Democracies were not military, financially and psychologically prepared.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adolf Hitler</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For a democratically elected politician, the policy which is now termed 'appeasement' made perfect sense.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It should be remembered that many people in England sympathised with Hitler's claims and accepted that the</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Treaty of Versailles was too harsh and that Germany should have been </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">treated more fairly.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So they did not object too much when Hitler built </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">up his armed forces, increased his navy and moved his troops into the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rhineland.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Also, in the 1930's, apart from the National Socialists, there was the threat of Stalin's C</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">ommunist tyranny, which most English people feared (quite rightly as it turned out) far more that the threat of Hitler's Germany.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-gbRmThCitqA/Txk7ySoFtfI/AAAAAAAAFFM/tw1vFz95V50/s1600/Royal+Airforce+Badge+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-gbRmThCitqA/Txk7ySoFtfI/AAAAAAAAFFM/tw1vFz95V50/s1600/Royal+Airforce+Badge+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="188" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Airforce</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-djS5ePTHCJo/Uwpt9J0pKDI/AAAAAAAAYH8/XMlS4UVnOeY/s1600/English+HIgh+Seas+Fleet+-+der+gro%25C3%259Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-djS5ePTHCJo/Uwpt9J0pKDI/AAAAAAAAYH8/XMlS4UVnOeY/s1600/English+HIgh+Seas+Fleet+-+der+gro%25C3%259Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" height="211" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Navy - Capital Ships</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Another reason why 'appeasement' seemed such a credible choice at the time to Chamberlain was primarily the fact that England simply lacked the military capability to fight a land war in Europe.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Royal Navy, which was far more powerful than any European navy, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">was of lesser use in fighting a continental war, and the army was generally trained to fight 'imperial wars' outside Europe.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Only the Royal Air-force could be seriously considered as being specifically designed to fight in European wars.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Another justification for 'appeasement' was that realistically, neither </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">France or Britain could protect Czechoslovakia and Poland from attack </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">as they were too far away and they also felt that perhaps it was not </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">altogether their business to interfere.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the 15th of March 1935, Hitler announced the reconstitution of the Luftwaffe, even though he was acting directly in contradiction to the Treaty of Versailles.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the 16th of March Germany introduced military conscription.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A year later, on the 17th of March 1936, German troops re-occupied the Rhineland, again breaking the Versailles Treaty.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The next step that would be taken concerned the Austrian Anschluß.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Again this was an extreme violation of section 80 of the Treaty of Versailles and, for Austria, section 88 of the treaty of St. Germain.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-YIgbeD7ULBI/U303pATpjwI/AAAAAAAAZJ8/zZhEPDMQYZw/s1600/Adolf+Hittler+enters+Braunau+-+Austria+-+Anchluss+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-YIgbeD7ULBI/U303pATpjwI/AAAAAAAAZJ8/zZhEPDMQYZw/s1600/Adolf+Hittler+enters+Braunau+-+Austria+-+Anchluss+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="156" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Adolf Hitler enters Braunau</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Anschluß is German for "connection" or union, also known as the Anschluß Österreichs, was the reunification of Austria into the Third Reich in 1938. This was in contrast with the Anschluß movement (Austria and Germany united as one country), which had been attempted since as early as 1918 when the Republic of German-Austria attempted union with Germany, but was forbidden by the Treaty of Saint Germain, and Treaty of Versailles peace treaties.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A strong central Europe under German rule, which the conference at Versailles had wished to avoid, was once again becoming a reality.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Any firm reaction from the international community did not really materialise.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the 18th of March 1938 a request was made by the Soviet Union towards the Western Democracies for collective action against Adolf Hitler.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Prime-Minister Neville Chamberlain answered that he did not find it wise to form war coalitions at a time when this could increase the chance of, and hasten, a big military conflict.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was a reply, which would later, with hindsight, be of great historic significance.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Liberation of the Sudetenland</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wappen Sudetenland</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hitler's demands with regard to the Sudeten Germans were legitimate - and the English government was undoubtedly right to allow the Sudetenland to be re-united with Germany. </span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Sudetenland is the name given to those northern, southwest, and western areas of Czechoslovakia which were inhabited mostly by Volksdeutsche, specifically the border districts of Bohemia, Moravia, and those parts of Silesia located within what was known as Czechoslovakia. The name is derived from that of the Sudetes mountains – featuring in Ptolemy's 2nd-century Geography as Sudeti montes.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Equally, Poland was abusing the Volksdeutsche and holding territory that had traditionally belonged within the borders of the German Reich.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Pt2A4iLKxi4/U304zhEukLI/AAAAAAAAZKU/lXkJKYivdf8/s1600/FreieStadt+Danzig+Staatswappen+-+occult+history+-+third+reich.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Pt2A4iLKxi4/U304zhEukLI/AAAAAAAAZKU/lXkJKYivdf8/s1600/FreieStadt+Danzig+Staatswappen+-+occult+history+-+third+reich.png" height="200" width="145" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Stadtwappen Danzig</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In National Socialist thinking, Volksdeutsche were "<i>German in terms of people or volk</i>". The term is the nominalised plural of volksdeutsch, with Volksdeutsche denoting a single female, and Volksdeutsche(r), a male single. The words Volk and völkisch conveyed the meanings of "folk" and "race" while adding the sense of superior civilisation and blood. These terms were used to define people in terms of their ethnicity rather than citizenship, and thus included Germans living beyond the borders of the Reich. This is in contrast to Imperial Germans (Reichsdeutsche), German citizens living within Germany.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Therefore, Germany was justified in re-taking the Polish Corridor and the German city of Danzig.</span><br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-53802381644968658352014-04-29T13:12:00.002-07:002014-04-30T03:12:38.648-07:00A Catholic School Tradgedy - Corpus Christi Catholic College<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">A CATHOLIC SCHOOL TRAGEDY</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-z7OpSSD1IPI/U2ATFAFVdNI/AAAAAAAAZAs/WRlyzoWZCq8/s1600/Anne-Maguire+-Corpus+Christi+Catholic+College+-+Leeds+-+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-z7OpSSD1IPI/U2ATFAFVdNI/AAAAAAAAZAs/WRlyzoWZCq8/s1600/Anne-Maguire+-Corpus+Christi+Catholic+College+-+Leeds+-+Catholic+Education.png" height="200" width="164" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Mrs Ann Maguire<br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Corpus Christi Catholic College - Leeds</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is with deep regret that we must record the tragic death of Mrs Ann Maguire, allegedly at the hands of one of her pupils, a boy of fifteen years - Tuesday 29 April 2014.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Naturally all reasonable people would offer their deepest sympathy to the friends and family of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Ann Maguire, who was a long serving member of the teaching staff at the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Corpus Christi Catholic College in Leeds.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Considering the unfortunate position of Catholic Education in England at present, this is a tragedy that the Catholic Church in England could well do without, however, it is immediately evident that a thorough 'cover-up' of the nature of this event is already under-way.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><span style="font-size: x-large;">Corpus Christi Catholic College</span></span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">School Prayer</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Today, as we WORK together,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">we ask you:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Be with us, Lord</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Today, as we LEARN together,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">we ask you:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Be with us Lord</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Today, as we PRAY together,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">we ask you:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Be with us Lord</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Today, as we GROW together,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">we ask you:</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Be with us Lord</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Today as we live our MISSION,</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">we ask you</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Be with us Lord</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Amen</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Corpus Christi Catholic College is a secondary school located in Halton Moor, Leeds, West Yorkshire, England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The school currently has a roll of around 900 to 1,000 pupils.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Around 50% of pupils achieve 5 A-C grades at GCSE.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 2001 Corpus Christi became the first Inner City Leeds High School to gain Specialist School status when it became a Technology College.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 2005 the school became a member of the Specialist Schools Most Improved Schools’ Club for the second occasion.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was awarded a School Achievement Award in 2003 and a recognition for the Healthy Schools Scheme.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Corpus Christi Catholic Church - Leeds</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In November 2006 the school was rated as overall Grade 2 (Good) by Ofsted, while, the same month, awarding it Grade 1 (Outstanding).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The school rewards its pupils with monetary Attendance Draws for pupils with high attendance; 'Going for Gold' and punctuality certificates; and house points and credits with vouchers and certificates.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Between 2009 and 2013, with funds from the UK Government and the Roman Catholic Diocese of Leeds, the school was refurbished and modernised.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Corpus Christi Catholic College feeder primary schools are Corpus Christi Catholic Primary School, St Theresa's Roman Catholic Primary School, St Gregory's Catholic Primary School, Our Lady's Catholic Primary School and St Nicholas' Catholic Primary School.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Like many other Roman catholic school, which call themselves academies or colleges, it is significant that this school has adopted the term 'college', presumably to raise its status.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire's death, after more than 40 years' teaching at the school, is thought to be the first time a teacher has been stabbed to death in a British classroom, and the first killing of a teacher in a school since the 1996 Dunblane massacre.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire, who was</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> 61 years old, had reduced her teaching load to four days a week, and was due to retire in September.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While every attempt has been made to indicate that this appalling event was not typical of the part of Leeds in which the school is to be found, it is interesting to note that the very first television news report of the incident stated that the school was to be found in a '<i>rough area</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many pupils and parents described Mrs Maguire as “</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the school’s mother</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">”.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It appears the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">had joined the school straight after university, and had devoted her life to the welfare of pupils, staying in touch with many long after they had left.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So what went wrong ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Well, although many pupils and parents have said that <i>everyone</i> liked - even <i>loved</i> - Mrs Maguire, that is undoubtedly the <i>hyperbole</i> that so often follows a tragic event.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Logically, it is <i>highly</i> unlikely that in a school of between 900 to 1000 pupils everyone liked </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire, or any of the other teachers for that matter.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And obviously, at least <i>one </i>pupil had <i>very little liking</i> for </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But why didn't anyone spot that '<i>supposedly'</i> one, disgruntled pupil ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It seems that Corpus Christi suffers from the same, politically correct, liberal agenda that afflicts, not only most schools, whether Catholic or otherwise, but also most public institutions in England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It has been stated that Corpus Christi had a '<i>staff leadership team</i>' and a '<i>pastoral team</i>', and it is notable that little or no mention has been made of the head and/or deputy head teacher.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'<i>Teams</i>', of course, allow for the '<i>spreading' of responsibility'</i>, to the extent that <i>no one</i> is actually responsible for <i>anything </i>or<i> anyone</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This has been seen in numerous recent scandals - in particular those related to hospitals and social services.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So what about the disgruntled fifteen year old ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It has been reported that the, as yet, unnamed boy accused of stabbing to death </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> chose to sit alone in lessons.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The teenager has also been described as a <i>depressed introvert</i>, who spent long periods on-line playing video games.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, the boy used a drawing of the '<i>Death - the Grim Reaper</i>' as the banner on his Facebook page.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His profiles on Google+ and YouTube also revealed his keen interest in '<i>Dark Soul</i>s' - a video game .</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The middle-class teenager, who loved heavy metal music, was heard to say that he felt he was an ‘<i>outcast</i>’, and would isolate himself in school.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It has also been suggested that he was very bright, and was in the top sets for everything.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Apparently the boy had previously threatened to commit suicide after complaining of bullying, and it has been reported that he had experimented with drugs.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Neighbours have also stated that he would not make eye contact with them, or acknowledge their greetings as he walked past.</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The boy's mother – a human resources manager who separated from his father, a council executive, a decade ago – had always seemed a responsible, attentive parent.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Undoubtedly the boy was a '<i>lone</i>r', who did well in all subjects <i>apart</i> from Spanish and, of course, his Spanish teacher was </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Significantly, other pupils stated that</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> he had seemed<i> increasingly troubled</i> in recent months.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It has also been reported that he was apparently suicidal, and had tried to kill himself several times. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, the boy often went into school carrying 'Jack Daniels' and beer, and he was a considered to be a ‘goth’ by his contemporaries.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And most significantly, the boy</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> told classmates he had a knife, and allegedly warned he was planning to<i> attack</i> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> because she “<i>was giving him grief</i>”, and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">had boasted the week before the killing he would<i> kill</i> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs Maguire</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> – but no one took him seriously.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And did any of the pupils who knew the boy's boasts tell any of the staff (and in particular Mr C Fletcher who is the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">CL PE, Inclusion Leader, E-Safety Officer, Designated Child Protection Officer - or </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mrs J Howard - </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">CL Health & Social Care, ICT & Year Leader - or the Lay Chaplain</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Miss M Scahill</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">)</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> - and if not, why not ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And if the staff were<i> not</i> told, then it implies that the pupils <i>saw little point</i> in telling the staff, which puts into question the professional abilities of the said staff.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But if the staff were told, then what action was taken by the staff to deal effectively with the problem ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These questions, of course, will probably never be answered adequately.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now in this tragic case there were enough warning signs here for even the most un-perceptive adult to see that there was a real, and serious problem.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But the ludicrously well-paid, 'team members' on the staff, who were supposed to be running the school, were obviously too busy with their clipboards, schedules, i-pads and other paraphernalia to notice a real boy in real pain - or to realise that a serious problem had developed between one of the pupils and a particular member of staff.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And although it may seem like sacrilege, we must also wonder if Mrs Maguire was <i>really</i> as nice to <i>everybody,</i> as it is <i>now</i> claimed.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So what's to be done ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Simples !</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Actually <i>see </i>pupils as they really are - easily said - hard to do - but it would help many, and even save some lives.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And ensure that teachers are<i> truly responsible</i>, and not <i>hiding </i>behind endless 'politically-correct' jargon.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Such 'jargon' revolves around such concepts as 'community', 'inclusiveness', 'teams', 'caring', 'responsibility' and 'respect'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Such aims or ideals are all very well - but simply saying them, or including them in a so-called 'mission statement' will not create a good institution, or protect staff <i>and</i> pupils from the possible tragedies that may occur in the everyday life of a typical school.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to be continued</span></div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-28980686568768186022014-03-14T16:17:00.001-07:002014-03-14T16:45:19.671-07:00Anthony Wedgewood-Benn<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">ANTHONY WEDGEWOOD-BENN</span></div>
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Anthony Neil Wedgwood "Tony" Benn, PC (3 April 1925 – 14 March 2014), formerly 2nd Viscount Stansgate, was a British Labour Party politician who was a Member of Parliament (MP) for 50 years and a Cabinet Minister under Harold Wilson and James Callaghan.</div>
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Benn's campaign to renounce his hereditary peerage was instrumental in the creation of the Peerage Act 1963.</div>
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In the Labour Government of 1964–1970 he served first as Postmaster General, where he oversaw the opening of the Post Office Tower and tried, unsuccessfully, to have the monarch's likeness removed from stamps, and later as the Minister of Technology.</div>
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In the period when the Labour Party was in Opposition, for a year he was the Chairman of the Labour Party.</div>
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In the Labour Government of 1974–1979 he returned to the Cabinet, initially as Secretary of State for Industry, before being made Secretary of State for Energy, retaining his post when James Callaghan replaced Wilson as Prime Minister.</div>
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During the Labour Party's time in Opposition during the 1980s, he was seen as the party's prominent figure on the left, and the term "Bennite" has come to be used in Britain for someone of a more radical left-wing position.</div>
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Benn has been described as "<i>one of the few UK politicians to have become more left-wing after holding ministerial office.</i>"</div>
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After leaving Parliament, Benn became involved in the grass-roots politics of demonstrations and meetings, and was the President of the Stop the War Coalition from 2003 until his death.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Early Life</span></div>
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Benn was born in London on 3 April 1925.</div>
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Benn's paternal grandfather was John Benn, a successful politician who was created a<i> baronet </i>in 1914. Benn's father William Wedgwood Benn was a Liberal Member of Parliament from 1906 who crossed the floor to the Labour Party in 1928 and was appointed <i>Secretary of State for India</i> by Ramsay MacDonald in 1929, a position he held until 1931.</div>
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William Benn was elevated to the <i>House of Lords</i> with the title of <i>Viscount Stansgate</i> in 1941 – the new wartime coalition government was short of working Labour peers in the upper house.</div>
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From 1945 to 1946, William Benn was the <i>Secretary of State for Air</i> in the first majority Labour Government.</div>
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Both his grandfathers, John Benn (who founded a publishing company) and Daniel Holmes, were also Liberal MPs (respectively, for Tower Hamlets, Devonport and Glasgow Govan).</div>
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Benn's contact with leading politicians of the day dates back to his earliest years; he met Ramsay MacDonald when he was five, David Lloyd George when he was 12 and Mahatma Gandhi in 1931, while his father was Secretary of State for India.</div>
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Benn's mother, Margaret Wedgwood Benn (née Holmes) (1897–1991), was a<i> theologian, feminist </i>and the founder <i>President of the Congregational Federation</i>.</div>
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She was a member of the <i>League of the Church Militant</i>, which was the predecessor of the <i>Movement for the Ordination of Women</i> – in 1925 she was rebuked by Randall Thomas Davidson, the Archbishop of Canterbury, for advocating the ordination of women.</div>
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His mother's<i> theology</i> had a profound influence on Benn, as she taught him that the stories in the Bible were based around the struggle between the prophets and the kings and that he ought in his life to support the prophets over the kings, who had power, as the prophets taught righteousness.</div>
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In July 1943, Benn enlisted in the Royal Air Force as an aircraftman 2nd Class.</div>
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His father and brother Michael (who was later killed in an accident) were already serving in the RAF.</div>
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He was granted an emergency commission as a pilot officer (on probation) on 10 March 1945.</div>
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As a pilot officer, Benn served as a pilot in South Africa and Rhodesia.</div>
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He relinquished his commission with effect from 10 August 1945, two months after the European WW2 ended on 8 May, and just days before the war with Japan ended which was on 2 September.</div>
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Benn went to<i> Westminster School </i>and studied at<i> New College, Oxford,</i> where he read Philosophy, Politics and Economics and was elected <i>President of the Oxford Union</i> in 1947.</div>
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In later life, Benn <i>removed</i> public references to his private education from Who's Who; in the 1975 edition his entry stated "Education—still in progress".</div>
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In the 1976 edition, almost all details were omitted save for his name, jobs as a Member of Parliament and as a Government Minister, and address; the publishers confirmed that Benn had sent back the draft entry with everything else struck through.</div>
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In the 1977 edition, Benn's entry disappeared entirely.</div>
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In October 1973 he announced on BBC Radio that he wished to be known as <i>Mr. Tony Benn</i> rather than as Anthony Wedgwood-Benn, and his book Speeches from 1974 is credited to "<i>Tony Benn</i>".</div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Political Philosophy</span></div>
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Benn's philosophy, such as it was, consisted of a form of <i>syndicalism</i>,<i> state planning</i> to ensure national competitiveness, greater democracy in the structures of the Labour Party and observance of Party Conference decisions.</div>
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His opponents justifiably stated that a Benn-led Labour Government would implement a type of<i> Eastern European socialism</i>.</div>
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Benn was overwhelmingly popular with Socialist<i> activists.</i></div>
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He publicly <i>supported Sinn Féin,</i> and the unification of Ireland.</div>
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In a keynote speech to the Labour Party Conference of 1980, shortly before the resignation of party leader James Callaghan and election of Michael Foot as successor, Benn outlined what he envisaged the next Labour Government would do. "<i>Within days</i>", a Labour Government would <i>gain powers to nationalise industries, control capital and implement industrial democracy</i>; "<i>within weeks</i>", all powers from Brussels would be returned to Westminster, and<i> abolish the House of Lords</i> by creating one thousand peers and then <i>abolishing the peerage</i>.</div>
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After Argentina invaded the Falkland Islands in April 1982, Benn argued that the dispute should be settled by the United Nations and that the British Government should <i>not </i>send a task force to recapture the islands.</div>
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Benn was a prominent <i>supporter</i> of the 1984–1985 UK <i>miners' strike</i> and of his long-standing friend, the National Union of Mineworkers leader <i>Arthur Scargill</i>.</div>
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He was undoubtedly an 'old-time' Socialist - who was often seen as a 'fellow traveller', who seemed to delight in taking a wilfully controversial position on almost any subject, and this alone led to the 'wilderness years' of the Labour Party, and subsequently Labour's pathetic attempts to re-market itself as 'New Labour'.</div>
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Probably the only positive contribution that he made was his espousal of the forward-looking 'Concorde' project.</div>
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He was undoubtedly a very sad, embittered man, who spent a whole life masquerading (unsuccessfully as it happens) as '<i>one of the downtrodden (but heroic) workers</i>', while accepting all the benefits of wealth and privilege.</div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-44416722680292486022014-02-22T12:33:00.001-08:002014-08-03T08:32:01.738-07:00The Spirit of England - England and Germany - 1714-1914<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The words ‘English’ and ‘England’ come from the Anglo-Saxon.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Anglo-Saxons were not a single people, and may not have been even a formal confederation originally.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Primarily made up of Jutes from Jutland where they are still called Jutes in that area, the Engle or Angles from Angeln in Denmark, also called the ‘Anglii’ (Latin for Engle,) by the Roman historian Tacitus, and the Seax, named after their formidable fighting knife of the same name, who came from Saxony Elbe-Weser region in Germany.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-mZM4H8aKbaw/U9wPHFILSKI/AAAAAAAAaZ8/Jmvv-m5EN0A/s1600/Yggdrasil+-+Logo+-+Occult+History+of+the+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-mZM4H8aKbaw/U9wPHFILSKI/AAAAAAAAaZ8/Jmvv-m5EN0A/s1600/Yggdrasil+-+Logo+-+Occult+History+of+the+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="199" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Smaller number of Frisians came from the small islands in the North Sea</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There were also Jutes from the lower Rhineland, and Swabians, Franks and Alamanni. However the Anglian and Saxon tribes were the most prominent.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These tribes called the Anglii-Saxones by Paul The Deacon to cover a single ‘<i>insular Germanic</i>’ identity, or Saxons (after the dominant tribe,) for short in more modern times.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They were a formidable set of three <i>North Sea Germanic</i> tribes.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From this combination of tribes we get an evolution through the words Engle, Angles, Anglii, - or Englisc, Anglisc.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus England had strong associations with the area later known as Germany, and the Germanic peoples.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For a long period through the Middle Ages and the Renaissance, however, England was primarily involved with France.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Later, however, England once again became involved with Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Prior to 1806, German-speaking Central Europe included more than 300 political entities, most of them part of the Holy Roman Empire or the extensive Habsburg hereditary dominions.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They ranged in size from the small and complex territories of the princely Hohenlohe family branches to the sizable, well defined territories as the Kingdom of Bavaria and the Kingdom of Prussia.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Their governance varied: they included free imperial cities, also of different sizes, such as the powerful Augsburg and the minuscule Weil der Stadt; ecclesiastical territories, also of varying sizes and influence, such as the wealthy Abbey of Reichenau and the powerful Archbishopric of Cologne; and dynastic states such as Württemberg.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One of these states was Hanover that had been a principality within the Holy Roman Empire before being elevated into an electorate in 1708, when Hanover was formed by union of the dynastic divisions of the Duchy of Brunswick-Lüneburg, excepting the Principality of Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wappen George Louis I<br />
Kurfürst von Hannover<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the accession, in 1714, of George Louis of the House of Hanover to the throne of Great Britain, as George I, Hanover was joined in a personal union with England, and entered into English history</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Holy Roman Empire, of which Hanover had been a constituent Imperial State, was dissolved in 1806.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The terms of the Congress of Vienna in 1814 elevated Hanover to an <i>independent kingdom, </i>and its Prince-Elector, George III of England, to King of Hanover.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The new kingdom was also greatly expanded, becoming the fourth-largest state in the German Confederation (behind Prussia, Austria and Bavaria) and the second-largest in north Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During the English Regency, and the reigns of kings George IV and William IV from 1816 to 1837, their younger brother, Adolph Frederick, officiated as Viceroy of Hanover, representing the English king.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When Queen Victoria succeeded to the British throne in 1837, the 123-year personal union of Great Britain and Hanover <i>ended</i>.</span><br />
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des Königreichs Preußen<br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-CoRJzknhVyo/Uwkd5EBwQHI/AAAAAAAAX9U/FTpgc9u6kHU/s1600/Royal+Monogram+of+Queen+Victoria+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-CoRJzknhVyo/Uwkd5EBwQHI/AAAAAAAAX9U/FTpgc9u6kHU/s1600/Royal+Monogram+of+Queen+Victoria+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="124" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Imperial Monagram of<br />
Queen-Empress Victoria<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Semi-Salic law operated in Hanover, excluding accession to the throne by a female while any male of the dynasty survived; thus instead of Victoria, her uncle in the male-line of the House of Hanover, Ernest Augustus, now the eldest surviving son of George III, succeeded to the throne of the new kingdom as Ernest Augustus I of Hanover; Adolph Frederick the younger brother returned to England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During the Austro-Prussian War (1866), Hanover attempted to maintain a <i>neutral </i>position, along with some other member states of the German Confederation.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hanover's vote in favour of the mobilisation of Confederation troops<i> against </i>Prussia on 14 June 1866 prompted Prussia to declare war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The outcome of the war led to the <i>dissolution</i> of Hanover as an independent kingdom, and it was <i>annexed </i>by the Kingdom of Prussia, becoming the Prussian Province of Hanover.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uQIf9ezLP0k/UwkvHqGH2DI/AAAAAAAAX9k/ZJiX8foTFRI/s1600/Saxe+Coburg+-++England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uQIf9ezLP0k/UwkvHqGH2DI/AAAAAAAAX9k/ZJiX8foTFRI/s1600/Saxe+Coburg+-++England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="181" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Wappen Saxe-Coburg</a><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Along with the rest of Prussia, it became part of the German Empire in 1871, under Kaiser Wilhelm I.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Queen Victoria</a>, of course, was a descendant of the House of Hanover - spoke German fluently, and spoke English with a German accent.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She undoubtedly thought of herself as German, rather than English, and when she married, she married a German Duke, <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Albert von Saxe-Coburg und Gotha</a>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a result, the English royal house subsequently took its name from the family of Albert, becoming the <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">House of Saxe-Coburg Gotha</a>.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Prince Albert - Prince Consort</a></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-xH-7tMBtOeI/UwkQ1C466FI/AAAAAAAAX74/oylBXfc7EF8/s1600/Coat+of+Arms+of+Prince+Albert+of+Saxe+Coburg+und+Gotha+-++Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-xH-7tMBtOeI/UwkQ1C466FI/AAAAAAAAX74/oylBXfc7EF8/s1600/Coat+of+Arms+of+Prince+Albert+of+Saxe+Coburg+und+Gotha+-++Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="248" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Coat of Arms of Prince Albert</a><br />
<a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Prince Consort</a><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Prince Albert of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha (Francis Albert Augustus Charles Emmanuel; later The Prince Consort; 26 August 1819 – 14 December 1861) was the husband of <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Queen Victoria</a> of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">He was born in the Saxon duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld to a family connected to many of Europe's ruling monarchs. At the age of 20 he married his first cousin, <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Queen Victoria</a>, with whom he would ultimately have nine children. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He died at the early age of 42, plunging the Queen into a deep mourning that lasted for the rest of her life. Upon Queen Victoria's death in 1901, their eldest son, Edward VII, succeeded as the first English monarch of the House of Saxe-Coburg Gotha.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-U09KvlwYQfA/UwkXRJmRh3I/AAAAAAAAX8Y/yDBehRKxZR4/s1600/Franz+Xaver+Winterhalter-+Victoria+Princess+Royal+-+1867+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-U09KvlwYQfA/UwkXRJmRh3I/AAAAAAAAX8Y/yDBehRKxZR4/s1600/Franz+Xaver+Winterhalter-+Victoria+Princess+Royal+-+1867+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="153" /></span></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The eldest child of Queen Victoria and Prince Albert was Victoria, the Princess Royal (Victoria Adelaide Mary Louisa; 21 November 1840 – 5 August 1901).<br />She was created Princess Royal of the United Kingdom in 1841.<br />Significantly, she became Deutsch Kaiserin (German Empress) and Königin von Preußen (Queen of Prussia), by marriage to the Deutsch Kaiser Friedrich III (German Emperor Frederick III).<br />After her husband's death, she became widely known as Kaiserin Friedrich (Empress Friedrich).</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Flagge der Kronprinz von Preußen<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In January 1861, on the death of his childless uncle King Frederick William IV of Prussia and the accession of his father as King William I, Prince Frederick became Kronprinz von Preußen (Crown Prince of Prussia), Victoria therefore became Kronprinzessin (Crown Princess).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The new Crown Prince and Crown Princess, however, were politically <i>isolated</i>; their <i>liberal</i> and <i>Anglophile</i> views clashing with the authoritarian rule of the Prussian minister-president, Otto von Bismarck.<br />Despite their efforts to educate their son, Wilhelm (later Kaiser Wilhelm II), in British attitudes of democracy, he favoured his German tutors in aspiring to autocratic rule, and thus became alienated from his parents, suspecting them of putting Britain's interests first.<br />The couple had the use of the Crown Prince's Palace located in the heart of Berlin.</span></div>
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<span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Kronprinzenpalais (Crown Prince's Palace) is a landmark building at one end of Unter den Linden in Berlin. </span></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">The building was in an impressive classical style (with furniture from Prussia rather than France) and became the residence of Crown Prince Frederick William (the future Frederick William III) and his wife Louise. The future Emperor William I was born there on 22 March 1797. In 1856–57, Johann Heinrich Strack extensively rebuilt the palace for William I's son, Prince Frederick William (the future Kaiser Frederick III), giving it substantially its present appearance. After 1861, when Frederick William's father acceded to the throne and he became Crown Prince, the building was once again known as the Kronprinzenpalais; he resided there with his wife Princess Victoria, daughter of England's Queen Victoria.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">During the three 'Wars of German Unification' – the 1864 Prussian-Danish War, the 1866 Austro-Prussian War, and the 1870–71 Franco-Prussian War – Victoria and Frederick strongly identified with the cause of Prussia and the North German Confederation.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">Their sympathies created a <i>rift </i>among Queen Victoria's extended family, since Victoria's younger brother, the Prince of Wales, was married to Princess Alexandra of Denmark, the elder daughter of Christian IX of Denmark, who was also reigning duke of the <i>disputed territories</i> of Schleswig and Holstein.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Princess Alexandra of Denmark</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">Alexandra of Denmark (Alexandra Caroline Marie Charlotte Louise Julia; 1 December 1844 – 20 November 1925) was Queen consort of the United Kingdom and Empress of India as the wife of King-Emperor Edward VII. </span><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">At the age of sixteen, she was chosen as the future wife of Albert Edward, Prince of Wales, the heir apparent of Queen Victoria. They married eighteen months later in 1863, the same year her father became king of Denmark as Christian IX and her brother was appointed to the vacant Greek throne as George I. She was Princess of Wales from 1863 to 1901, the longest anyone has ever held that title, and became generally popular; her style of dress and bearing were copied by fashion-conscious women. Largely excluded from wielding any political power, she unsuccessfully attempted to sway the opinion of British ministers and her husband's family to favour Greek and Danish interests.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Proclaimation des Deutschen Reiches<br />
18 January 1871</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">At Versailles on 18 January 1871, the victorious princes of the North German Confederation proclaimed a German Empire with King William I of Prussia as the hereditary Deutscher Kaiser (</span><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">German Emperor) </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"> with the style Kaiserliche und Königliche Majestät - Frederick and Victoria became German Crown Prince and German Crown Princess with the style Kaiserliche und Königliche Hoheit.</span><br />
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<span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;"><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The German Empire consisted of 27 constituent territories (most of them ruled by royal families). While the Kingdom of Prussia contained most of the population, and most of the territory of the Reich, the Prussian leadership became supplanted by German leaders, and Prussia itself played a lesser role.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kaiserin Friedrich</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the death of his father on 9 March 1888, the Kronprinz ascended the throne as the Kaiser Frederick III (and as König Friedrich III von Preußen) and Victoria adopted the title and style of Ihre Kaiserliche und Königliche Majestät der deutschen Kaiserin, Königin von Preußen (</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Her Imperial and Royal Majesty The German Empress, Queen of Prussia).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Frederick, however, was terminally ill with throat cancer and died after reigning 99 days.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From then on </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Victoria </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">was known simply as </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ihre Kaiserliche Majestät, der Kaiserin Friedrich (</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Her Imperial Majesty The Empress Frederick).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">She was often known as '<i>Die Engländerin</i>' (the Englishwoman) due to her origins in the United Kingdom, even though her ancestry was almost entirely German.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">Indeed, she continued to speak English in her German household.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.200000762939453px;">Politically, she remained a liberal, in contrast with her son Kaiser William II.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ag5ygFcZjJU/UwlELF4WRuI/AAAAAAAAYAI/ig5P3lR0JAc/s1600/Queen+Victoria+-++First+World+War+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ag5ygFcZjJU/UwlELF4WRuI/AAAAAAAAYAI/ig5P3lR0JAc/s1600/Queen+Victoria+-++First+World+War+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="141" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Queen-Empress Victoria</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Queen Victoria</a> believed that intermarriage between European royalty could be the means by which Europe would achieve lasting peace – and that this would ensure the survival of royalty in the face of the increasingly threatening forces of republicanism.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She was a compulsive, often dreadfully insensitive, matchmaker for her children, and 40-odd grandchildren.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the mid 1890s, her web of marriages had ensured that her grandson George – the future King-Emperor George V – was related by blood or marriage to virtually <i>every</i> royal family in Europe.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Most significantly, George was first cousin to Kaiser Wilhelm II of Germany, and first cousin to Tsar Nicholas II of Russia (whose mother was sister to George's mother).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But the entanglement of politics and personal relationships placed terrible pressure on both, and when things went wrong, the consequences were often darkly comic and also disastrous.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Wilhelm and <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Queen Victoria</a></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kaiser Wilhelm II</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Things went badly wrong, for example, between Kaiser Wilhelm and his English relations.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Kaiser was Queen Victoria's oldest grandson, and she regarded him with a mixture of <i>indulgence</i> and <i>exasperation</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Personally, Wilhelm was difficult enough.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was spoilt, wilful, and bombastic.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was riven with <i>insecurities</i> – in particular towards his English family – which made him desperate always to be in the right, easily hurt and vindictive.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Told incessantly by his English mother (the Kaiserin Friedrich) </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">that everything British was <i>better </i>than anything German, he had grown up confused and obsessed by, and resentful of, his English cousins, and England itself.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, Wilhelm had enthusiastically, but unfortunately, adopted his grandmother's ideas about mixing personal relations and politics.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kaiser Wilhelm II</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From the moment he became German emperor in 1888, he wanted to be a force in international affairs, and decided that the way to do it was through "<i>personal diplomacy</i>" – his relationships with other monarchs.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was convinced that he had a <i>talent for persuasion.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The <i>opposite</i>, however, was true, and w</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">ithin three months of coming to the throne in 1888, he had his uncle Edward publicly evicted from Vienna, then later claimed the episode had never taken place and refused to apologise.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilhelm, for good reason, was jealous of Edward, who was hugely popular in Europe, and longed for his attention: a disgruntled German courtier wrote that he "<i>fluttered</i>" round "<i>fat</i>" Edward "<i>like a leaf in the wind round a tower</i>".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Edward, meanwhile, had been deeply stung by being publicly humiliated by a nephew twenty years his junior.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The two countries' foreign ministries laboured to make sure that the falling-out didn't have wider political consequences, and eventually the family made up.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But then they fell out again and again, largely because of Wilhelm's insistence on confusing the <i>powerless</i> English (although they were really, by and large, German) royals with the British government.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tactless and aggressive public speeches, clumsy interventions in imperial politics, a stream of what Edward called "<i>pinpricks from Berlin</i>", and finally the building of a navy that Wilhelm explicitly admitted he planned should rival the Royal Navy, gradually alienated his increasingly irritated grandmother (<a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/07/victoria-regina-et-imperatrix-enigma.html" target="_blank">Queen Victoria</a>) and fed into the wider political climate, in which Germany and Britain unfortunately saw each other as international rivals.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Even his cousin George, (later George V), who didn't dislike Wilhelm, and was almost completely disengaged from politics, began to complain about the Germans.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Interestingly, Wilhelm made the following comment about the Naval question in his autobiography 'Meine frühen Lebens' (</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">My Early Life'):</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"<i>I had a peculiar passion for the navy. It sprang to no small extent from my English blood. When I was a little boy... I admired the proud British ships. There awoke in me the will to build ships of my own like these some day, and when I was grown up to possess a fine navy as the English.</i>"</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilhelm didn't create the animosity that built up between England and Germany, but his fatal inability to detach the personal from the political meant that over and over he helped to nurture and encourage German hostility towards Britain, while telling himself he was doing the opposite.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And his adolescent touchiness and almost oedipal desire to outdo the British, made him a kind of human incarnation of the adolescent German nation's touchiness and overweening desire to measure up to Britain too.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When Edward VII came to the throne in 1901 the situation deteriorated further.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The two men tried to get on, but they could hardly bear to be in each other's company, and Wilhelm, as ever confusing <i>appearance</i> with <i>real power</i>, became obsessed with the notion that Edward was deliberately working to <i>encircle Germany</i> in a web of alliances, starting with the '<i>entente cordiale' </i>with France.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Every setback to German plans was blamed on Edward: "<i>He is a Satan, you can hardly believe what a Satan he is !</i>" Wilhelm told his entourage in the midst of a hysterical rant in 1906.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In Britain, Edward placed himself publicly in the camp that wanted more expenditure on warships and viewed Germany as an explicit threat.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-PeG9gw1Jppo/UwlLMfPwrmI/AAAAAAAAYAs/5k8IUftYHjk/s1600/King+Emperor+George+V+-+First+World+War+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-PeG9gw1Jppo/UwlLMfPwrmI/AAAAAAAAYAs/5k8IUftYHjk/s1600/King+Emperor+George+V+-+First+World+War+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="143" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King-Emperor George V</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the time George V came to the throne in England in 1910, the relationship between the English and German royal houses had so cooled that nothing as fragile as personal feelings could have dislodged it.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-V0ysjV6iBEs/UwlLjm97JFI/AAAAAAAAYA0/yPV6jYe3I0M/s1600/Tsar+Nicholas+II+-+Royal+Scots+Greys+-++Imperial+Russia+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-V0ysjV6iBEs/UwlLjm97JFI/AAAAAAAAYA0/yPV6jYe3I0M/s1600/Tsar+Nicholas+II+-+Royal+Scots+Greys+-++Imperial+Russia+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="136" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Царь Николай II<br />
Tsar Nicholas II</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When George V, </span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Царь Николай</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tsar Nicholas) </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">and Kaiser Wilhelm met for the last time in Berlin, at the wedding of Wilhelm's daughter in 1913, the meeting was a paradigm of the state of international relations.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">George and </span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Царь Николай</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> (</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tsar Nicholas) tried to grab private moments to talk, while Wilhelm did his best to stop them, convinced that they were politicking.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many English politicians commented upon the Kaiser's 'mental instabilities', but regardless, they allowed foreign relations to further deteriorate.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The result was that Kaiser Wilhelm II's '<i>personality disorder</i>' directly contributed to the deterioration of foreign relations and, in England, '<i>did not allow for stability and consistency in German foreign policy</i>.'</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-lMOJEKO_s8o/Uwp11LznYdI/AAAAAAAAYIo/kHrch65ZLpc/s1600/Kaiser+Wilhelm+II+and+King+Edward+VII+-+Potsdam+Berlin+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-lMOJEKO_s8o/Uwp11LznYdI/AAAAAAAAYIo/kHrch65ZLpc/s1600/Kaiser+Wilhelm+II+and+King+Edward+VII+-+Potsdam+Berlin+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="197" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kaiser Wilhelm II and King Edward VII</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was the manner in which Germany and England, two nations with <i>fundamentally compatible interests</i>, were driven towards armed conflict by a man who, in the deepest layers of his personality, wished that they would live together<i> 'in friendship and peace'.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many critics blame Kaiser Wilhelm II as the primary cause of The First World War because of inconsistencies in his personality.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rohl, arguably the most prominent historian commenting on the Kaiser, argues that '<i>the personal rule of the Kaiser prevailed because of his personal appointments of the Imperial Chancellors to Germany'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, historian Geoff Eley argues that the Kaiser's own personal rule in Germany was very <i>limited,</i> and Rohl's argument is <i>flawed.</i></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-a7IYcvP7eC8/Uwp00uj5GcI/AAAAAAAAYIc/XNrh6H0UyG8/s1600/Kaiser+Wilhelm+II+and+Ging+George+V+-+Potsdam+Berlin+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-a7IYcvP7eC8/Uwp00uj5GcI/AAAAAAAAYIc/XNrh6H0UyG8/s1600/Kaiser+Wilhelm+II+and+Ging+George+V+-+Potsdam+Berlin+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="217" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kaiser Wilhelm II and King George V - Potsdam</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Kaiser was very <i>dramatic</i>, and constantly sought attention that identifies him as a '<i>histrionic'</i>, and his tendencies for breakdowns identifies him as a '<i>borderline'</i> as well.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These '<i>personality disorders</i>' only had a profound influence in two areas: the <i>naval building program </i>and <i>foreign relations</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This is extremely disappointing because even though his actions as a result of the '<i>disorder</i>' may have contributed to the deterioration of Anglo-German relations before the First World War, the Kaiser, (as mentioned before), in the deepest layers of his personality wished that Germany and England would live together in<i> friendship </i>and <i>peace.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Therefore, because of his <i>innermost wishes</i> for peace, and the several times in which he tried to <i>initiate negotiations of peace</i>, he was <i>not </i>the primary cause for the outbreak of the First World War.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In fact, the primary cause of the First World War was the declaration of war by Austria against Serbia.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-cOpnhjdyxk0/UwsnQWiWKRI/AAAAAAAAYOQ/bIUju1sC0CM/s1600/Leaders+of+the+Black+Hand+-+Serbia+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-cOpnhjdyxk0/UwsnQWiWKRI/AAAAAAAAYOQ/bIUju1sC0CM/s1600/Leaders+of+the+Black+Hand+-+Serbia+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.JPG" height="147" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Leaders of the Црна рука</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-wAaAayXJ0Xk/UwqI3vdfv1I/AAAAAAAAYJo/41UE1VLbeM4/s1600/Alfred+Graf+von+Schlieffen+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-wAaAayXJ0Xk/UwqI3vdfv1I/AAAAAAAAYJo/41UE1VLbeM4/s1600/Alfred+Graf+von+Schlieffen+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="121" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Graf Alfred von Schlieffen</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Due to the German Kaiser's own advisers, who initiated the '<i>Shlieffen Plan</i>' and other mistakes, and foreign politicians largely mis-attributing his intentions, and neglecting to meet with the Kaiser, the First World War, as a war between Germany and Austria against England, France and Russia commenced.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Therefore, the German Kaiser's advisers, along with the Kaiserliche und Königliche Government of the Austro-Hungarian Empire (along with the Црна рука - a secret military society formed by members of the Serbian Army in the Kingdom of Serbia) were, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">in reality, responsible for the outbreak of the First World War.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, there was widespread antagonism, Germans against the English, and the English against the Germans, affecting all classes in both England and Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Germans had a problem because Germany had only existed as a political entity since 1871 (see above).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Basically, as a nation, they lacked confidence.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite this, Germany had made remarkable progress in terms of industrialisation and technology.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Germany before 1800 was heavily rural, with some urban trade centres.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the 19th century it began a stage of rapid economic growth and modernization, led by heavy industry.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By 1900 it had the largest economy in Europe.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Before 1850 Germany lagged far behind the leaders in industrial development, England, France and Belgium.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-kVEmOx6lR9o/UwqIlEWuSzI/AAAAAAAAYJg/Lr1DocAXKDU/s1600/German+Railways+-+1900+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-kVEmOx6lR9o/UwqIlEWuSzI/AAAAAAAAYJg/Lr1DocAXKDU/s1600/German+Railways+-+1900+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="138" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">German Railways 1900</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By mid-century however, the German states were catching up, and by 1900 Germany was a <i>world leader</i> in industrialization, along with England and the United States.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1800, Germany's social structure was poorly suited to entrepreneurship or economic development, and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">traditionalism remained strong in most of Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Until mid-century, the guilds, the landed aristocracy, the churches, and the government bureaucracies had so many rules and restrictions that entrepreneurship was held in low esteem, and given little opportunity to develop.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The beginnings of the industrial revolution in Germany, however, came in the textile industry, and was facilitated by eliminating tariff barriers through the Zollverein, starting in 1834.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The take-off stage of economic development came with the rail-road revolution in the 1840s, which opened up new markets for local products, created a pool of middle manager, increased the demand for engineers, architects and skilled machinists and stimulated investments in coal and iron.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-9UhDO9p4uY8/UwqGjdvKziI/AAAAAAAAYJU/gdefchzvif0/s1600/BASF_Ludwigschafen_works_Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-9UhDO9p4uY8/UwqGjdvKziI/AAAAAAAAYJU/gdefchzvif0/s1600/BASF_Ludwigschafen_works_Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="126" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">BASF Ludwigschafen Works</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The political decisions about the economy of Prussia (and after 1871 all Germany) were largely controlled by a coalition of "<i>rye and iron"</i>, that is the <i>Junker landowners</i> of the east and the <i>heavy industry</i> of the west.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Industrialization progressed dynamically in Germany and German manufacturers began to capture domestic markets from English imports, and also to compete with English industry abroad, particularly in the U.S.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The German textiles and metal industries had by 1870 <i>surpassed</i> those of England in organization and technical efficiency, and superseded English manufacturers in the domestic market.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Germany became the <i>dominant economic power</i> on the continent, and was the second largest exporting nation after England - and it is for this reason that the English were <i>deeply distrustful</i> of German intentions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The English also worried about German intentions outside Europe.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In particular, Germany was seen as a threat to English access to oil, and to the Indian Empire as a result of their plans for a railway running from Berlin to Bahgdad, and possibly even to Quwait.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/08/spirit-of-england-great-war.html" target="_blank">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The causes of World War I, which began in central Europe in late July 1914, included intertwined factors, such as the conflicts and hostility of the four decades leading up to the war. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and nationalism played major roles in the conflict as well.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NgvtI_Td_8Y/UwpqC_m9SrI/AAAAAAAAYHg/7E7Ub_0C06E/s1600/Gavrilo+Princip+-+Sarajevo+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-NgvtI_Td_8Y/UwpqC_m9SrI/AAAAAAAAYHg/7E7Ub_0C06E/s1600/Gavrilo+Princip+-+Sarajevo+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" height="200" width="167" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Gavrilo Princip</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-As_ix8NfOPI/UwppNR2Eh-I/AAAAAAAAYHY/AddhYKroxSw/s1600/Erzherzog+Franz+Ferdinand+-+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-As_ix8NfOPI/UwppNR2Eh-I/AAAAAAAAYHY/AddhYKroxSw/s1600/Erzherzog+Franz+Ferdinand+-+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" height="200" width="145" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The immediate origins of the war, however, lay in the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the 'Crisis of 1914', '<i>casus belli</i>' for which was the assassination of Erzherzog Franz Ferdinand von Österreich, and his wife, by Gavrilo Princip, a young Serb who was a puppet of Црна рука - a secret military society formed by members of the Serbian Army in the Kingdom of Serbia.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The crisis came after a long and difficult series of diplomatic clashes between the Great Powers (Italy, France, Germany, the British Empire, the Austria-Hungarian Empire and Russia) over European and colonial issues, in the decade before 1914, that had left tensions high.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In turn these diplomatic clashes can be traced to changes in the balance of power in Europe since 1867.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The more immediate cause for the war was tensions over territory in the Balkans.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Austria-Hungary competed with Serbia and Russia for territory and influence in the region, and they pulled the rest of the Great Powers into the conflict through their various alliances and treaties.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">'The Guardian' - Wednesday 5 August 1914 23.56 GMT</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'<i>Great Britain declared war on Germany at 11 o'clock last night.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>The Cabinet yesterday delivered an ultimatum to Germany. Announcing the fact to the House of Commons, the Prime Minister said: "We have repeated the request made last week to the German Government that they should give us the same assurance in regard to Belgian neutrality that was given to us and Belgium by France last week. We have asked that it should be given before midnight."</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Last evening a reply was received from Germany. This being unsatisfactory the King held at once a Council which had been called for midnight. The declaration of war was then signed. The Foreign Office issued the following official statement:-</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>'Owing to the summary rejection by the German Government of the request made by his Majesty's Government for assurances that the neutrality of Belgium will be respected, his Majesty's Ambassador to Berlin has received his passports, and his Majesty's Government declared to the German Government that a state of war exists between Great Britain and Germany as from 11 p.m. on August 4, 1914.</i>''</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-djS5ePTHCJo/Uwpt9J0pKDI/AAAAAAAAYH4/WUnHKWl5etc/s1600/English+HIgh+Seas+Fleet+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-djS5ePTHCJo/Uwpt9J0pKDI/AAAAAAAAYH4/WUnHKWl5etc/s1600/English+HIgh+Seas+Fleet+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" height="211" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">English High seas Fleet</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KKSfalLA-TY/UwpsrF_G_BI/AAAAAAAAYHs/EVhq_3APHls/s1600/State_coat_of_arms_of_Belgium+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-KKSfalLA-TY/UwpsrF_G_BI/AAAAAAAAYHs/EVhq_3APHls/s1600/State_coat_of_arms_of_Belgium+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.png" height="200" width="173" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Coat of Arms of Belgium<br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The <i>true </i>reasons for the declaration of war were <i>not</i>, however, directly related to the neutrality of Belgium.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Germany had competed with the Royal Navy for the most powerful navy, (see above), and this had turned England against the German Empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When Germany invaded Belgium, England feared naval bases being created even closer to England's shores, and regarded this as a <i>major threat</i> to <i>England's survival,</i> and the <i>safety of the Empire.</i></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-226DJzPcyc0/UwqYBPfq6JI/AAAAAAAAYLA/WdHt1iA6ckc/s1600/Delhi+Durbar+1+-+1911+-+Indian+Raj+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-226DJzPcyc0/UwqYBPfq6JI/AAAAAAAAYLA/WdHt1iA6ckc/s1600/Delhi+Durbar+1+-+1911+-+Indian+Raj+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="177" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Indian Raj - Delhi Durbar - 1911</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-86T3JvbdirY/UwqXwxxIs-I/AAAAAAAAYK4/PTeVPlSYk2U/s1600/Baghdad_Railway++-+Ottoman+Empire+-+Central+Powers+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-86T3JvbdirY/UwqXwxxIs-I/AAAAAAAAYK4/PTeVPlSYk2U/s1600/Baghdad_Railway++-+Ottoman+Empire+-+Central+Powers+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="140" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Baghdad Railway</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, Germany was seen as the <i>only </i>significant <i>economic rival </i>on the continent, and German expansion in the Middle East (the Baghdad Railway) was seen as a <i>threat </i>to English oil supplies, and access to the Raj (Indian Empire) - which was seen as the source of England's position as a '<i>Great Power</i>' (see above).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The violation of Belgian neutrality was therefore seen as the <i>perfect opportunity </i>to deal the the '<i>German threat'</i> once and for all.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Strangely, the fact that, at that time, England and Germany shared strong ethnic and cultural links, and also the fact that the English Royal House (Saxe-Coburg Gotha) was German, and that the German Kaiser was the grandson of the recently deceased, and much loved, Queen Victoria, seemed to have little effect on the fateful decision taken by the English government to go to war against their German 'cousins'.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">THE RAPE OF BELGIUM</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If England had been <i>completely</i> justified in declaring war on the German Empire, it undoubtedly would not have felt it necessary to mount a vigorous propaganda campaign centred on the concept of the '<i>Rape of Belgium</i>'.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-TQJinQXLKko/UwpxcrdNHPI/AAAAAAAAYIE/KGfPTlYUoMc/s1600/First+World+War+Atrocity+Propaganda+-+Rape+of+belgium+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+London+-+Hounslow+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-TQJinQXLKko/UwpxcrdNHPI/AAAAAAAAYIE/KGfPTlYUoMc/s1600/First+World+War+Atrocity+Propaganda+-+Rape+of+belgium+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+London+-+Hounslow+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="145" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Rape of Belgium</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The invasion of Belgium, with its very real suffering, was nevertheless represented in a highly stylized way that dwelt on perverse sexual acts, lurid mutilations, and graphic accounts of child abuse of dubious veracity.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In England, many patriotic publicists propagated these stories on their own.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example popular writer William Le Queux described the German army as "<i>one vast gang of Jack-the-Rippers</i>", and described in graphic detail events such as a governess hanged naked and mutilated, the bayoneting of a small baby, or the "<i>screams of dying women"</i>, raped and "<i>horribly mutilated</i>" by German soldiers, accusing them of cutting off the hands, feet, or breasts of their victims.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English propagandists were eager to move as quickly as possible from an explanation of the war that focused on the murder of an Austrian Archduke and his wife by Serbian nationalists to the question of the invasion of neutral Belgium.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VKB-9WPYUkM/Uwp2SGfrpSI/AAAAAAAAYIw/DYJWWev8Wi0/s1600/Germanr+Uhlans+(Lancers)+-+1914+-++Der+Grosse+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+der+Erste+Weltkrieg+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-VKB-9WPYUkM/Uwp2SGfrpSI/AAAAAAAAYIw/DYJWWev8Wi0/s1600/Germanr+Uhlans+(Lancers)+-+1914+-++Der+Grosse+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+der+Erste+Weltkrieg+-+Deutschland+Ostmark+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="177" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kaiserlich Deutsche Ulanen</td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_Pf6rcCCXG4/UwpymBMcLII/AAAAAAAAYIQ/MHkM3lKJTMw/s1600/Louis+Raemakers+-+Thrown_to_the_Swine+-+The_Martyred_Nurse+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-_Pf6rcCCXG4/UwpymBMcLII/AAAAAAAAYIQ/MHkM3lKJTMw/s1600/Louis+Raemakers+-+Thrown_to_the_Swine+-+The_Martyred_Nurse+-+der+gro%C3%9Fe+Krieg+-+Deutschland+und+die+Ostmark+First+World+war+-+England+and+Germany+-+Peter+Crfawford+-+Spirit+of+England.jpg" height="200" width="138" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'Thrown to the Swine'<br />
Louis Raemaekers</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the infamous German phrase "<i>scrap of paper</i>" (referring to the 1839 Treaty of London) galvanized a large segment of English intellectuals in support of the war, in more <i>proletarian circles, </i>(that is <i>normal </i>circles) this imagery had far less impact.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example, Labour politician Ramsay MacDonald upon hearing about it, declared that "<i>Never did we arm our people and ask them to give up their lives for a less good cause than this</i>".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As the German advance in Belgium progressed, English newspapers started to publish stories on German atrocities.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-I5Q_Ubs_bTA/Uwp4ylHZgZI/AAAAAAAAYJE/Hlbi8XYe598/s1600/Angels_of_Mons.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-I5Q_Ubs_bTA/Uwp4ylHZgZI/AAAAAAAAYJE/Hlbi8XYe598/s1600/Angels_of_Mons.jpg" height="200" width="133" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Angels of Mons</td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-u9t_3WLMDaY/Uwp4pIj9L9I/AAAAAAAAYI8/Ekz1adB-Se4/s1600/Crucified+Soldier+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-u9t_3WLMDaY/Uwp4pIj9L9I/AAAAAAAAYI8/Ekz1adB-Se4/s1600/Crucified+Soldier+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="165" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Crucified Soldier</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The English press, "<i>quality</i>" and tabloid alike, showed less interest in the "<i>inventory of stolen property and requisitioned goods</i>" that constituted the bulk of the official Belgian Reports.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Instead, accounts of rape and bizarre mutilations flooded the British press.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The intellectual discourse on the "<i>scrap of paper</i>" was then mixed with the more graphic imagery depicting Belgium as a brutalized woman, exemplified by the cartoons of Louis Raemaekers.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The English government regularly fabricated bizarre stories, and supplied them to the public, such as Belgian nuns being tied to the clappers of church bells and crushed to death when the bells were rung.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Reports paved the way for other war propaganda such as 'The Crucified Soldier', 'The Angels of Mons', and the 'Kadaververwertungsanstalt'.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">GERMANOPHOBIA</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anti-German sentiment (or Germanophobia) is defined as an opposition to or fear of Germany, its inhabitants, its culture and the German language.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following the signing of the 'Entente Cordiale' in 1904 between Britain and France, attitudes towards Germany, and German residents in England, became very negative.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-my89sZ-OyjA/UwqUipDb_BI/AAAAAAAAYKg/JC0Qs48cRP0/s1600/entente+cordiale+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-my89sZ-OyjA/UwqUipDb_BI/AAAAAAAAYKg/JC0Qs48cRP0/s1600/entente+cordiale+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="152" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'Entente Cordiale'</td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-M85Mqut8qmM/UwqUDaaVyLI/AAAAAAAAYKY/KHKBBpK8d8w/s1600/Entente+Cordial+-+German+Propaganda+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-M85Mqut8qmM/UwqUDaaVyLI/AAAAAAAAYKY/KHKBBpK8d8w/s1600/Entente+Cordial+-+German+Propaganda+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="165" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'Entente Cordiale'<br />
as seen by Germany</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The 'Entente Cordiale' was a series of agreements signed on 8 April 1904 between England and France, marking the start of the alliance <i>against </i>Germany that was one of the main causes of the First World War. Beyond the immediate concerns of colonial expansion addressed by the agreement, the signing of the 'Entente Cordiale' marked the end of almost a thousand years of intermittent conflict between the two nations (England and France) and their predecessor states, and the formalisation of the peaceful co-existence that had existed since the end of the Napoleonic Wars in 1815.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The 'Entente Cordiale', along with the 'Anglo-Russian Entente', and the 'Franco-Russian Alliance', later became part of the Triple Entente among Britain, France, and Russia. This was seen by Germany as proof of aggressive '<i>encirclement'</i>.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A fear of German militarism <i>replaced</i> a previous <i>admiration for German culture and literature</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the same time, journalists produced a stream of articles on the threat posed by Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1894 Alfred Harmsworth had commissioned author William Le Queux to write the serial novel 'The Great War in England' in 1897, which featured Germany, France and Russia combining forces to crush England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Twelve years later Harmsworth asked him to repeat this, promising the full support of his formidable advertising capabilities.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The result was the best-selling 'The Invasion of 1910', which originally appeared in serial form in the 'Daily Mail' in 1906, and has been referred to by historians as inducing an atmosphere of <i>paranoia, mass hysteria</i> and <i>Germanophobia</i> that would climax in the 'Naval Scare of 1908'</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-V0cBsZHWYOc/UwqRXPHojQI/AAAAAAAAYKM/MlrLgURBDM8/s1600/Anti+German+Riots+1914+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-V0cBsZHWYOc/UwqRXPHojQI/AAAAAAAAYKM/MlrLgURBDM8/s1600/Anti+German+Riots+1914+-++England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="176" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Anti-German Riots - 1914</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Articles of the 'Daily Mail' regularly advocated <i>anti-German sentiments </i>throughout the 20th century, telling British readers to refuse service at restaurants by Austrian or German waiters on the claim that they were spies, and told them that if a German-sounding waiter claimed to be Swiss that they should demand to see the waiter's passport.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-injxe8mfPGs/UwqWNO2U0wI/AAAAAAAAYKs/6zr5Qrck5Xk/s1600/The+Invasion+Of+1910+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-injxe8mfPGs/UwqWNO2U0wI/AAAAAAAAYKs/6zr5Qrck5Xk/s1600/The+Invasion+Of+1910+-+England+and+Germany+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="135" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Invasion of 1910</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Invasion of 1910 is a 1906 novel written mainly by William Le Queux (with H. W. Wilson providing the naval chapters). It is one of the more famous examples of Invasion literature. It is viewed by some as an example of pre-World War I Germanophobia. It was translated into twenty-seven languages, and over one million copies of the book edition were sold. The idea for the novel is alleged to have originated from Field Marshal Earl Roberts, who regularly lectured English schoolboys on the need to prepare for war. It is centred on an invasion by the Germans, who have managed to land a sizeable invasion force on the East Coast of England. They advance inland, cutting all telegraph lines and despoiling farmland as they go, and the British struggle to mount a proper defence, fighting a battle at Royston. The Germans eventually reach London and occupy half the city. A junior Member of Parliament declares that "Britain is not defeated" and organises a resistance movement, the "League of Defenders" despite harsh reprisals by the Germans and a severe lack of arms. The Germans seem unable to combat this and tighten their control of London and suddenly find themselves faced with a popular uprising. Eventually, a newly formed British Army marches to liberate London.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-7b1Yh-kDgxY/UwqOpiShhSI/AAAAAAAAYKA/A0EOCcyKjkQ/s1600/Badge+of+the+House+of+Windsor+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-7b1Yh-kDgxY/UwqOpiShhSI/AAAAAAAAYKA/A0EOCcyKjkQ/s1600/Badge+of+the+House+of+Windsor+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="158" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Heraldic Badge of the<br />
House of Windsor<br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the outbreak of war in 1914, in England, anti-German feeling led to rioting, assaults on suspected Germans and the looting of stores owned by people with German-sounding names, occasionally even taking on an antisemitic tone.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Increasing anti-German hysteria even threw suspicion upon the English monarchy, and King George V was persuaded to change his German name of Saxe-Coburg Gotha to 'Windsor', and relinquish <i>all</i> German titles and styles on behalf of those of his relatives who were British subjects.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Also in the England, the German Shepherd breed of dog was renamed to the euphemistic "<i>Alsatian</i>".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Surprisingly, attitudes to Germany were not entirely negative among British troops fighting on the Western Front; the British writer Nicholas Shakespeare quotes a statement from a letter written by his grandfather during the First World War in which he says he would rather fight the French and describes German bravery.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hxTREkFNYxI/UwqN5WWID-I/AAAAAAAAYJ4/vNsq7sMcvT4/s1600/Robert+Graves+-+This+England+-Literature+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-hxTREkFNYxI/UwqN5WWID-I/AAAAAAAAYJ4/vNsq7sMcvT4/s1600/Robert+Graves+-+This+England+-Literature+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="145" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Robert Graves</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Robert Graves who, like the King, also had German relatives, wrote shortly after the war during his time at Oxford University as an undergraduate that:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>'The eighteenth century owed its unpopularity largely to its Frenchness. Anti-French feeling among most ex-soldiers amounted almost to an obsession. Edmund, shaking with nerves, used to say at this time: "No more wars for me at any price! Except against the French. If ever there is a war against them, I'll go like a shot." Pro-German feeling had been increasing. With the war over and the German armies beaten, we could give the German soldier credit for being the most efficient fighting man in Europe... Some undergraduates even insisted that we had been fighting on the wrong side: our natural enemies were the French'. -</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: right;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Robert Graves - 'Goodbye to All That'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Who wanted War ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So who wanted war ?</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">
</span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1908 Austria annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina, despite the protests from the Russian Empire and Serbia.</span></div>
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</span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Subsequently, there were<i> two</i> Balkan wars<span style="text-align: left;"> that took place in the Balkan Peninsula in south-eastern Europe in 1912 and 1913.</span></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Osmanli Devleti Nisani Yeni<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Four Balkan states defeated the Ottoman Empire in the first war; one of the four, Bulgaria, was defeated in the second war.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ottoman Empire lost nearly all of its holdings in Europe.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Austria-Hungary, although not a combatant, was weakened as a much <i>enlarged Serbia</i> pushed for union of the South Slavic peoples.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The war set the stage for the <i>Balkan crisis of 1914</i> and thus was a '<i>prelude to the First World War</i>.'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the early 20th century, Bulgaria, Greece, Montenegro and Serbia had achieved independence from the Ottoman Empire, but large elements of their ethnic populations remained under Ottoman rule.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1912, these countries formed the '<i>Balkan League</i>.'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There were<i> three</i> main causes of the <b>First Balkan War</b>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ottoman Empire was <i>unable</i> to reform itself, govern satisfactorily, or deal with the rising ethnic nationalism of its diverse peoples.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Secondly the Great Powers quarrelled amongst themselves, and failed to ensure that the Ottomans would carry out the needed reforms.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This led the Balkan states to impose their own solution.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Most important, the Balkan League had been formed, and its members were confident that it could defeat the Turks.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ottoman Empire lost almost all its European territories to the west of the River Maritsa, drawing present day Turkey's western border.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A large influx of Turks started to flee into the Ottoman heartland as a result of the lost lands.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By 1914, the remaining core region of the Ottoman Empire had experienced a population increase of around 2.5 million because of the flood of immigration from the Balkans.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The <b>Second Balkan War</b> broke out on 16 June 1913.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bulgaria was dissatisfied over the division of the spoils in Macedonia, made in secret by its former allies, Serbia and Greece, and attacked them.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Serbian and Greek armies repulsed the Bulgarian offensive and counter-attacked into Bulgaria, while Romania and the Ottoman Empire also attacked Bulgaria and gained (or regained) territory.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bulgaria</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the resulting Treaty of Bucharest, Bulgaria lost most of the territories it had gained in the First Balkan War.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Second Balkan war was a catastrophic blow to Russian policies in the Balkans, where Russia had focused its interests for access to the '<i>warm seas'</i> for centuries.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">First, it marked the end of the 'Balkan League', a vital arm of the Russian system of defence against Austria-Hungary.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Second, the clearly pro-Serbian position Russia had been forced to take in the conflict, mainly due to Bulgaria's uncompromising aggressiveness, caused a permanent break-up between the two countries.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Accordingly, Bulgaria reverted its policy to one closer to the Central Powers' understanding over an anti-Serbian front, due to its new national aspirations, now expressed mainly against Serbia.</span></div>
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As a result, Serbia was isolated militarily against its rival Austria-Hungary, a development that eventually doomed Serbia in the coming war a year later.</div>
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But most damaging, the new situation effectively trapped Russian foreign policy:</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kingdom of Serbia<br />
<span style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2014</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After 1913, Russia could not afford losing its<i> last ally</i> in this crucial area, and thus had no alternatives but to <i>unconditionally support</i> Slavic Serbia when the crisis between Serbia and Austria broke out in 1914.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was a position that <i>inevitably</i> drew her into a World War with devastating results for her, since she was less prepared (both militarily and socially) for that event than any other Great Power.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Austria-Hungary<i> took alarm </i>at the great increase in Serbia's territory at the expense of its own national aspirations in the region, as well as<i> Serbia's rising status</i>, especially to Austria-Hungary's Slavic populations.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This concern was shared by the German Empire, which saw Serbia as a Slavic <i>satellite</i> of Russia.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Russia, and NIcholas II had previously been humiliated and defeated in the Russo-Japanese War (8 February 1904 – 5 September 1905), and subsequently wanted to rectify the situation by winning a war against Turkey (to <i>reclaim Constantinople</i> as the seat of Orthodoxy), and against Austria, to support a Greater Serbia.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tsar NIcholas II</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Russia, and NIcholas II had previously been <i>humiliated and defeated</i> in the Russo-Japanese War (8 February 1904 – 5 September 1905), and subsequently wanted to rectify the situation by <i>winning a war</i> against the Ottoman Empire (to <i>reclaim Constantinople</i> as the seat of Orthodoxy), and against Austria, to support a Greater Serbia and dominate a Slavic Balkans.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Austria <i>wanted war</i> (although probably Franz-Joseph did not really understand what was happening), in order to bring the Balkans more under its control, by subduing Serbia - and when Erzherzog Franz-Ferdinand von Österreich was assassinated in a Serbian inspired plot, they had the perfect excuse to pursue this policy.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Erzherzog Franz-Ferdinand<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">France<i> wanted war </i>with the German Empire in a pathetic attempt to wipe out the<i> humiliation</i> it had experienced in the Franco-Prussian War (Deutsch-Französischer Krieg) - (19 July 1870 – 10 May 1871).</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-wdz42yjZb5E/U3e-S69Y45I/AAAAAAAAZDc/QtTgsZdZKvM/s1600/Hindenburg8-BM-Berlin-Potsdam.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-wdz42yjZb5E/U3e-S69Y45I/AAAAAAAAZDc/QtTgsZdZKvM/s1600/Hindenburg8-BM-Berlin-Potsdam.jpg" height="200" width="133" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Generalfeldmarschall<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">England<i> wanted war</i> with the German Empire,<i> and</i> the Ottoman Empire, in order to thwart the building of the Berlin to Baghdad railway, and thereby<i> protect its access to the Indian Empire</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The German military Junkers <i>wanted war</i> in order to obtain military hegemony over Mitteleuropa (Central Europe), and simply because they had never lost a war, and therefore were confident of victory.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Kaiser,<i> on some days</i> wanted to be a glorious '<i>Kriegsherr</i>' (war-lord), invading his great rival, England, while on other days he wanted to be a typical, aristocratic English gentleman (the grandson of Queen Victoria) - see '<a href="http://germany19001939.blogspot.co.uk/2014/02/die-psychologie-des-kaiser-wilhelm-ii.html" target="_blank">Die Psychologie des Kaiser Wilhelm II</a>'.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So who, in the last analysis, was responsible for the war.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"> Treaty of Versailles</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Article 231, of the Treaty of Versailles, - often known as the <i>War Guilt Clause</i>, - was the opening article of the <i>reparations section</i> of the treaty, which ended the First World War between the German Empire and the Allied and Associated Powers.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The article served as a legal basis to compel Germany to pay reparations.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Article 231 required</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"<i>Germany [to] accept the responsibility of Germany and her allies for causing all the loss and damage</i>" during the war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Germans viewed this clause as a national humiliation, forcing Germany to accept full responsibility for causing the war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">German politicians were vocal in their opposition to the article in an attempt to generate international sympathy, while German historians worked to undermine the article with the objective of subverting the entire treaty.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Allied leaders were surprised at the German reaction; they saw the article only as a necessary legal basis to extract compensation from Germany.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As has been stated above, the nations and empires on the side of the allies all had reasons for '<i>wanting</i>' war.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Equally the Central Powers had some vague reasons for wanting war, but only Austria-Hungary could be said to have begun the conflict by declaring war on Serbia on 28 July 1914.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is the question of why the Ottoman Empire should have become involved in what was essentially a European conflict.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It must be understood, however, that the gradual erosion of the Empire for the past three centuries accelerated during this period, and the powers of Europe gathered like a pack of wolves to snatch what they could.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ottoman Empire was effectively bankrupt.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1809 Greece won its independence, in 1878 Serbia and Rumania.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1908 Austria-Hungary annexed Bosnia-Herzegovina and, in the same year, Bulgaria claimed its independence.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1911 Italy, successfully, attacked the Ottomans across the Mediterranean to gain Tripoli (modern day Libya).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1912-13 Albania and Macedonia declared their independence after the 2nd Balkan War.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The tipping point for Turkey came on the 2nd of November 1914, when Russia declared war on the Ottoman Empire, and on the 5th of November, when Britain and France also declared war on Ottoman Turks.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Interestingly, Honduras declared war on Germany on 19th July 1918 (with the record going to Romania, who declared war on the Central Powers - albeit for the second time - one day before it finished, on 10 th November 1918).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Significantly - Germany NEVER declared war on England (Great Britain or the British Empire) - and never has done.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For England, declaring war on the Second Reich was the<i> beginning of the end</i> of England's position as a '<i>world power</i>' and great empire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The '<i>end</i>', of course, came shortly after the end of the Second World War.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">England could have easily put pressure on Belgium to accept Germany's proposal that Belgium should allow the German army to pass peacefully through Belgian territories - and it should be noted that Germany had given guarantees that Belgium's neutrality would be respected, and that no offensive action would be taken against Belgian citizens or Belgian property.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Belgium, on the other hand knew that, by denying Germany passage through its territory, a general European, and possibly World War would be inaugurated, and England would inevitably declare war on the German Empire.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/08/spirit-of-england-great-war.html" target="_blank">THE GREAT WAR</a></span></div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-19119331503124491932014-01-19T12:44:00.002-08:002015-07-29T15:13:00.043-07:00The Spirit of England - Christopher Chataway<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2_RZ_pCrlbg/Utw75mTW4PI/AAAAAAAAX2s/XaUlFmffDiY/s1600/Chris+Chataway+-+Running+-+Athletics+-+Sport+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford+copy.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="189" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-2_RZ_pCrlbg/Utw75mTW4PI/AAAAAAAAX2s/XaUlFmffDiY/s1600/Chris+Chataway+-+Running+-+Athletics+-+Sport+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford+copy.png" width="200" /></a></div>
<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Sir Christopher John Chataway</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sir Christopher John Chataway PC (31 January 1931 – 19 January 2014) was a British middle- and long-distance runner, television news broadcaster, and Conservative politician.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Born in Chelsea, London, Chataway was educated at Sherborne School and Magdalen College, Oxford, where he gained a philosophy, politics and economics degree, but his studies were overshadowed by his success on the athletics track as a long-distance runner.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Athletics Career</span></div>
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Chataway had a short but distinguished athletics career.</div>
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At the Helsinki Olympic Games of 1952, in the 5000 metres final, after being passed on the last bend by the Czech long distance runner, Emil Zátopek, France's Alain Mimoun, and West Germany's Herbert Schade, Chataway's foot brushed the curb and he crashed headlong to the ground. Chataway managed to finish the race in fifth place.</div>
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On leaving university he took an executive job with Guinness.</div>
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When Sir Hugh Beaver of Guinness came up with the idea for the Guinness Book of Records, it was Chataway who suggested his old university friends Norris and Ross McWhirter as editors, knowing of their liking for facts.</div>
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Chataway continued with his running.<br />
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When Roger Bannister ran the first sub-four minute mile, his close friend Chataway was one of his pacemakers.<br />
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He finished in second place in the 5000 metres at the European Athletics Championship of 1954, 12.2 seconds behind the winner Vladimir Kuts, but two weeks later turned the tables at a London v. Moscow athletics competition at White City, setting a world record time of 13 minutes 51.6 seconds.</div>
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The contest was televised via the Eurovision network and made Chataway a sporting celebrity; that December he won the first BBC Sports Personality of the Year award.</div>
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After competing in the 1956 Olympics, Chataway retired from international athletics, though he continued to race for Thames Hare and Hounds.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Soon after leaving Oxford with a degree in politics, philosophy and economics, he decided to aim for a political career.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He thought a suitable job in the rapidly expanding world of television might help.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He refused offers in sports TV and with panel and quiz shows but secured a job in August 1955 with ITN.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He and Robin Day were its first two newscasters.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After six months, when loss-making ITV cut back on on its news output, Chataway switched to the BBC and was for three and a half years one of Panorama's highly regarded team of reporters with a different assignment each week sometimes at home but usually abroad.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By this time he was also considering another career, this time in politics.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Chris Chataway - MP</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He had been narrowly elected as a Conservative to the London County Council in 1958 in Lewisham North, and was then selected to stand for Parliament in the same seat.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Lewisham North was a highly marginal seat won by Labour in a by-election in 1957, but Chataway's charm helped to win the seat with a majority bigger than it had been in the previous general election.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His maiden speech expressed the hope that the England cricket team would refuse to play a tour in apartheid South Africa, a highly unusual opinion for a Conservative.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In Parliament, Chataway took up the issue of refugees, especially in Africa, and campaigned so hard during World Refugee Year that he was awarded a Nansen Medal.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He served as a Parliamentary Private Secretary before being appointed as a junior Education Minister in July 1962. In the 1964 election, his majority was slashed to 343 and the seat looked distinctly vulnerable; in 1966 he lost.</span></div>
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In 1967 the Conservatives unexpectedly won control of the Inner London Education Authority and the party leadership was horrified to discover that their newly elected councillors were going to try to break up comprehensive schools and replace them with secondary modern and grammar schools.</div>
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Arms of the GLC</div>
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Chataway, with relevant ministerial experience, was persuaded to take over.</div>
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He was elected an Alderman and appointed Leader of the Education Committee.</div>
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Eventually cajoling his colleagues into a more moderate line, he avoided a head on collision with Edward Short (the Labour Education Secretary) and proceeded with those schemes for secondary reorganisation that he regarded as well founded.</div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Inner London Education Authority was established when the Greater London Council (GLC) replaced the London County Council as the principal local authority for London in 1965.</span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">(The GLC was established by the London Government Act 1963, which sought to create a new body covering all of London rather than just the inner part of the conurbation, additionally including and empowering newly created London boroughs within the overall administrative structure.)</span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The LCC had taken over responsibility for education in Inner London from the London School Board in 1904. In what was to become Outer London, education was primarily administered by the relevant county councils and county boroughs, with some functions delegated to second-tier councils in the area.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Chataway was keen to return to Parliament, and the opportunity came in a byelection in Chichester in May 1969.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He then resigned as ILEA Leader. With the return of a Conservative Government in 1970 after refusing the offer of Sports Minister he was appointed by Edward Heath as Minister for Posts and Telecommunications and made a Privy Counsellor.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In this post he took charge of introducing commercial radio for the first time, ending the BBC monopoly.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After a reshuffle in April 1972 he was Minister for Industrial Development.</span></div>
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When the Conservatives were defeated in 1974, Chataway announced his retirement from politics (at the age of 43) and he did not seek re-election that October.</div>
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He then went into business, becoming a Managing Director of Orion Bank, a consortium bank later acquired by one of its shareholders, the Royal Bank of Canada.</div>
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He stayed with Orion, later as Vice Chairman, for 15 years.</div>
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He held various non-executive directorships.</div>
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He was also the first Chairman of Groundwork, the environmental charity and Hon Treasurer of the National Campaign for Electoral Reform.</div>
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His principal outside interest was Action Aid, a small overseas development charity, of which he became Hon Treasurer in 1974 and later Chairman.</div>
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By the time he left the Board of Trustees in 1999 Action Aid's annual turnover had grown to nearly £100 million.</div>
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In 1991 Chataway was appointed chairman of the Civil Aviation Authority – a job he relished not least because his father had been one of the early aviators.</div>
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He supported his friend Chris Brasher when he established the London Marathon, and was President of the Commonwealth Games Council for England from 1990 to 2009.</div>
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He was knighted in 1995 for services to aviation.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Christopher Chataway suffered from cancer for the last two and a half years of his life and he died aged 82 at St John's Hospice in north west London on 19 January 2014</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">.</span></div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-8252223774540968192014-01-10T15:55:00.001-08:002014-01-14T05:07:31.730-08:00The Spirit of England - Catholic Education in England - A Case History<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Origins of Roman Catholic Education</span><br />
<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">for more information about Holy Cross School scroll down</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #cccccc; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Some interesting comments about this post have been published.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cccccc; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Some are downright offensive - most are negative, and poorly argued.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cccccc; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">It should be remembered that individuals making these comments were teenagers at the time of the events described, were <i>not </i>in a position to <i>know</i>, or <i>understand</i>, what was really going on at the school in question.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cccccc; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">Those individuals should also note that the purpose of the post was to describe events, individuals and attitudes that could be considered to have contributed to the <i>decline</i> of Catholic education in Thanet.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cccccc; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The fact that, apart from the Ursuline Convent School, there is <i>no</i> secondary Catholic education in Thanet at the present time should indicate that, from the 1970s onwards, there was a chronic lack of <i>direction, leadership and competence</i> among the 'leading' figures in the Roman Catholic community in Thanet.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #cccccc; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">The author of the post in question is neither 'mad', as some individuals have suggested, or motivated by 'spite', but rather reflecting, sadly, on a tragedy which has been unrecorded for many years.</span><br />
<span style="color: #cccccc; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #cccccc; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;"><b>And please note</b> - this post is <i>not</i> yet completed - there is <i>more </i>to come !</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thanet has an important place in the history of Christianity in England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Once, famously described as the 'backside' of England (although 'backside was not the exact word used), Thanet, unlikely though it may seem, was where English Latin Christianity began</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And it's all because of Augustine - who plays a large part in this story.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Augustine of Canterbury (circa first third of the 6th century – probably 26 May 604) was a Benedictine monk who became the first Archbishop of Canterbury in the year 597.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He is considered the "<i>Apostle to the English</i>" and a founder of the English Church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Before the Roman withdrawal </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">in 410 AD, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Britannia had been converted to Christianity.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Britain sent three bishops to the Council of Arles in 314, and a Gaulish bishop went to the island in 396 to help settle disciplinary matters.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8mdacmKFy-0/Ur9Vj2_YrxI/AAAAAAAAW3A/42HOEOvqbtU/s1600/saxon+warriors+-+Thanet+-+catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8mdacmKFy-0/Ur9Vj2_YrxI/AAAAAAAAW3A/42HOEOvqbtU/s200/saxon+warriors+-+Thanet+-+catholic+Education.png" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After the Roman legions departed, pagan tribes settled the southern parts of the island while western Britain, beyond the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms, remained Christian.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This native Celtic Church developed in isolation from Rome under the influence of missionaries from Ireland and was centred on monasteries instead of bishoprics.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Other distinguishing characteristics were its calculation of the date of Easter and the style of the tonsure haircut that clerics wore.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Evidence for the survival of Christianity in the eastern part of Britain during this time includes the survival of the cult of Saint Alban and the occurrence in place names of eccles, derived from the Latin ecclesia, meaning "church".</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Saint Alban is venerated as the first British Christian martyr. Along with his fellow saints Amphibalus, Julius and Aaron, Alban is one of four named martyrs remembered from Roman Britain. He was martyred by beheading in the Roman city of Verulamium (modern St. Alban's Cathedral) sometime during the 3rd or 4th century, and his cult has been celebrated there since ancient times.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is no evidence that these native Christians tried to convert the Anglo-Saxons.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The invasions destroyed most remnants of Roman civilisation in the areas held by the Saxons and related tribes, including the economic and religious structures .</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LDB6-og7rqY/Ur9WKhiBLiI/AAAAAAAAW3I/XGuJqtDeyLc/s1600/St+Gregory+the+Great+-+Pope+Gregory+I+-+Thanet+-+Augustine+-+Catholic+Education.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="320" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-LDB6-og7rqY/Ur9WKhiBLiI/AAAAAAAAW3I/XGuJqtDeyLc/s320/St+Gregory+the+Great+-+Pope+Gregory+I+-+Thanet+-+Augustine+-+Catholic+Education.jpg" width="180" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank">Pope Gregory I</a><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was against this background that <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank">Pope Gregory I</a> decided to send a mission, often called the Gregorian Mission, to convert the Anglo-Saxons to Christianity in 595.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">'<a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank">St Gregory </a>and the Angels'<br />
Westminster Cathedral</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so we have the famous story, based on the words, 'Non Angli, sed angeli' – "<i>They are not Angles, but angels</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These, apparently were the words spoken by Gregory when he first encountered pale-skinned English boys at a slave market, sparking his dispatch of St. Augustine of Canterbury to England to convert the English, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">and he continued "<i>Well named, for they have angelic faces</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Which is about as '<a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-and-homosexuality.html" target="_blank">camp</a>' as you can get - and shows that such attitudes were not restricted to the contemporary Catholic hierarchy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so Augustine, who was accompanied by Laurence of Canterbury, his eventual successor to the archbishopric, and a group of about 40 companions, some of whom were monks, landed in Kent in 597, to </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">convert the island of 'beautiful boys'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After converting almost everyone in sight, Augustine established his episcopal see at Canterbury.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ixeH17TdSeE/Ur9P12ACE2I/AAAAAAAAW2s/WzLQCcVPSR8/s1600/Ecclesia+Anglia+2+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford+copy.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ixeH17TdSeE/Ur9P12ACE2I/AAAAAAAAW2s/WzLQCcVPSR8/s200/Ecclesia+Anglia+2+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford+copy.png" width="124" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/the-catholic-church-in-england.html" target="_blank">Ecclesia Anglia</a><br />
<a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/the-catholic-church-in-england.html" target="_blank">The Church of England</a><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is much Catholic history which need not concern us here (check the Contents of this blog for more information)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Augustine's work, however, was undone much later by the Protestant Reformation, and the establishment of the <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/the-catholic-church-in-england.html" target="_blank">Church <i>of </i>England.</a></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-W508Rbs_jNw/UIrkpNnBHOI/AAAAAAAAKiw/2nTC-FYWr8E/s1600/Pope+Pius+ix+-+Romann+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-W508Rbs_jNw/UIrkpNnBHOI/AAAAAAAAKiw/2nTC-FYWr8E/s200/Pope+Pius+ix+-+Romann+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" width="195" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eventually, though, the Roman Catholic church was re-established in England by a Papal Bull, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'Universalis Ecclesiae', of 29 September 1850 by which <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank">Pope Pius IX</a> recreated the Roman Catholic diocesan hierarchy in England, which had been extinguished with the death of the last Marian bishop in the reign of Queen Elizabeth I of England. </span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Queen Elizabeth I of England</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">New names were given to the dioceses, as the old ones were in use by the Church of England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The bull aroused considerable anti-Catholic feeling among English Protestants.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The reasons for the re-establishment of the hierarchy were stated in the bull and are: "<i>Considering the actual condition of Catholicism in England, reflecting on the considerable number of the Catholics, a number every day augmenting, and remarking how from day to day the obstacles become removed which chiefly opposed the propagation of the Catholic religion, We perceived that the time had arrived for restoring in England the ordinary form of ecclesiastical government, as freely constituted in other nations, where no particular cause necessitates the ministry of Vicars Apostolic.</i>"</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The London district became the metropolitan archdiocese of Westminster and the diocese of Southwark; and it was Southwark diocese that controlled the Roamn Catholic Church in Thanet.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With regard to Augustine, St Augustine's Cross, a stone Celtic cross, was erected in 1884, marks the spot in Ebbsfleet, Thanet, East Kent, where Augustine is said to have landed.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Catholic Education in England</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following the Reformation in the 16th century, the Church’s role as a provider of public education went largely underground until the re-establishment of the Roman Hierarchy by <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank">Pope Pius IX</a> in 1850 - (see above), however, in 1847 the Catholic Poor School Committee was already established, which focused on the promotion of Catholic primary education. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Because the Church has always viewed education as vital to the formation and development of the the church membership, it put the setting up of Catholic schools for the Catholic community ahead of building Churches, often using its schools in those early days as the place for worship for the parish.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1905 the Catholic Education Council was established as the overarching organisation to promote Catholic Education in England and Wales on behalf of the Catholic Bishops (this later became the Catholic Education Service).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic schools continued to be established throughout the late nineteenth and early twentieth century.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many Catholic schools were established in the 19th Century to meet the needs of poor Catholic immigrants from Ireland.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic schools today also provide 30% of their places to children and young people who are not Catholic (?)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1944 the educational landscape across England and Wales changed forever with the passing of the Education Act 1944 (also known as the ‘Butler Act’).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This act promised ‘<i>secondary education for all’,</i> and increased the school leaving age to 15, meaning that all children from the post-war generation received a minimum of 10 years of education.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Under the Butler Act, most Catholic schools became ‘voluntary aided’ schools.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This meant that they became part of the state system of education, whilst retaining their <i>distinctively Catholic ethos </i>through various legal protections which continue to apply to Catholic schools to this day.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The agreement between Church and State meant that the funding of Catholic schools was shared by the Catholic foundations of the schools (in most cases the Dioceses or religious orders) and by the government.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Catholic Education Service (CES)</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-MdGDSCX6CAU/UsMoQ_uLfLI/AAAAAAAAXJ4/ieIYizmKoQE/s1600/Roman+Catholic+Bishops%E2%80%99+Conference+of+England+and+Wales+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-MdGDSCX6CAU/UsMoQ_uLfLI/AAAAAAAAXJ4/ieIYizmKoQE/s200/Roman+Catholic+Bishops%E2%80%99+Conference+of+England+and+Wales+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Roman Catholic Bishops’ Conference<br />
of England and Wales </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Catholic Education Service (CES) (actually the Roman Catholic Education Service)</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> is an agency of the Roman Catholic Bishops’ Conference of England and Wales (CBCEW).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It works closely with the CBCEW Department for Education and Formation, and represents the Bishops’ national education policy in relation to the 2300 Roman Catholic schools, colleges and university colleges which the Roman Church is responsible for across England and Wales.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The CES negotiates with the Westminster and Welsh Governments and other national bodies in order to safeguard and promote Roman Catholic education.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Roman Catholic Education Service has its roots in the Catholic Poor School Committee founded in 1847.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At this time with the restoration of the Catholic hierarchy the work of the Committee focused on <i>primary</i> education, and there was an expectation among the clergy that where finances would not permit the building of both a church and a school, building a school should take precedence, thus serving as the focal point and place of worship for the local Roman Catholic community until a church could also be built.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Secondary Education Council was added and in 1905 the Roman Catholic Education Service for England and Wales was established.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'cream' of Catholic education, however, is to be found in the many Roman Catholic Public Schools, also known as Roman Catholic Independent Schools, (meaning private schools).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These schools, despite their obvious moral shortcomings (see below), are renowned for their impeccable academic standards, and much thought and effort, on the part of the Roman Catholic authorities, is directed to maintaining theses standards.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The logic, of course, is simple.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By giving the children of the<i> influential </i>and <i>powerful</i> the best education possible it is deemed possible for the Roman catholic Church to build up a cadre of equally influential and powerful alumni, who may be relied upon to favour the Roman Catholic cause in the highest levels of society.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The children of the poor, however, while being given some grounding in basic skills, and Roman Catholic doctrine and faith, are largely ignored, and are dumped into educational '<i>sinks</i>', such as Holy Cross School (see below).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Most of the elite Roman Catholic Independent Schools were </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">founded by religious orders, and provide fee-paying education.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They include both day and boarding schools.</span><br />
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-oT5-kkUcRtk/UsLy3xUbtsI/AAAAAAAAXHQ/8T3nGlPHAlY/s1600/CISC+Catholic+Independant+Schools+-+logo+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="142" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-oT5-kkUcRtk/UsLy3xUbtsI/AAAAAAAAXHQ/8T3nGlPHAlY/s200/CISC+Catholic+Independant+Schools+-+logo+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" width="200" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If you go to the Catholic Independent Schools Conference website (www.cisc.uk.net) </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">you will find the following :</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #a2c4c9; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><b>What is Catholic Education ?</b></span><br />
<b><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><span style="color: #a2c4c9;"></span><br /><span style="color: #a2c4c9;">“See how these Christians love one another” - Love is central to our Catholic Faith, God’s love for us, our love for God and our love for each other. </span></span></b><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Which is difficult to take seriously (see below).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An example of a Roman Catholic Independent School is the Benedictine </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">St Augustines College (scroll down to see below).</span></div>
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Abusive Aspects of Catholic Education in England</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately, the Roman Catholic Education Service and the Catholic Independent Schools Conference </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">seem remarkably incompetent.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Not only is there the debacle of Holy Cross School (also known as a 'High School' and later an 'Academ'y - see below), but in the independent sector it has been unable to oversee matters in a satisfactory manner.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">William Manahan OSB<br />
Father Prior of a Buckfast Abbey</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Buckfast Abbey</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While the Roman Catholic Church may paint a rosy picture of Catholic education in England, the truth of the matter is <i>very</i> different.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Listed below are a number (but not all) of confirmed cases - which are restricted to dioceses in England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In other parts of the United Kingdom similar levels of abuse have occurred, and in Eire the situation is considerably worse.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the Diocese of Plymouth William Manahan OSB, the Father Prior of Buckfast Abbey Preparatory School was convicted of molesting boys in his school during the 1970s.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 2007, two former Benedictine monks from Buckfast Abbey were sentenced for sexually abusing boys.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Jeremiah McGrath of the Kiltegan Fathers was convicted in Liverpool in May 2007 for facilitating abuse by Billy Adams.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">McGrath had given Adams £20,000 in 2005 and Adams had used the money to impress a 12-year-old girl who he then raped over a six-month period.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-gmKV2W_7EoE/UsNGpp2YFXI/AAAAAAAAXMo/n5Re9msq_2w/s1600/James+Carragher+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="149" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-gmKV2W_7EoE/UsNGpp2YFXI/AAAAAAAAXMo/n5Re9msq_2w/s200/James+Carragher+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">McGrath denied knowing about the abuse but admitted having a brief sexual relationship with Adams.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His appeal in January 2008 was dismissed.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the Diocese of Middlesbrough James Carragher, principal of the former St. William's School, owned by the Diocese of Middlesbrough, was jailed for 14 years in 2004 for abusing boys in his care over a 20-year period.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Father Alexander Bede Walsh</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1yqADo_y5oc/UsILr95y_NI/AAAAAAAAXFw/jHc0mWIL9as/s1600/Coat+of+Arms+of+the+Roman+Catholic+Archdiocese+of+Birmingham+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1yqADo_y5oc/UsILr95y_NI/AAAAAAAAXFw/jHc0mWIL9as/s200/Coat+of+Arms+of+the+Roman+Catholic+Archdiocese+of+Birmingham+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" width="102" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> Archdiocese of Birmingham</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the Archdiocese of Birmingham Father Alexander Bede Walsh was sentenced to 22 years in prison in March 2012 for serious paedophile offences against boys.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Walsh used religion to control his young victims, telling one boy that drinking alcohol would get him to heaven, and another believed that the abuse was '<i>the hand of God touching him'</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One young victim was driven to a suicide attempt.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Walsh had a previous conviction for computer indecency.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">James Robinson worked in parishes in the English Midlands, and when an accusation of child abuse happened in the 1980s, the Roman Catholic Church allowed him to escape to the United States though they knew about an "<i>unwholesome relationship</i>" the priest had with a boy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Robinson remained free for over 20 years till in the first decade of the 21st century he was extradited back to the UK to face charges.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Robinson has received a 21-year prison sentence for multiple paedophile offenses.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Roman Catholic Church paid Robinson up to £800 per month despite knowing the allegations against him.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There are widespread accusations of physical abuse, emotional abuse and sexual abuse of unprotected children at Father Hudson Home, Coleshill, Warwickshire.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-M9XUddalhjQ/UsIGx44RNXI/AAAAAAAAXFg/eDwI-L28CZs/s1600/ChristianBrothers+Logo+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-M9XUddalhjQ/UsIGx44RNXI/AAAAAAAAXFg/eDwI-L28CZs/s1600/ChristianBrothers+Logo+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" /></span></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There are even allegations that vulnerable children <i>disappeared</i> inexplicably.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">According to reports, priests and nuns were the perpetrators.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In December 2012, in the Diocese of Shrewsbury, staff at the Christian Brothers school St Ambrose College, Altrincham, were implicated in a child sex abuse case involving teaching staff carrying out alleged acts of abuse, both on and off school grounds.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">More than<i> fifty</i> former pupils contacted police, either as victims of, or witnesses to, sexual abuse.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The alleged sexual abuse, including molestation of children while corporal punishment was administered, stemmed from 1962 onwards and continued over four decades.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Abuse at Benedictine Monasteries</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This section only deals with cases of abuse involving Benedictine Monasteries in England - worldwide the situation is much worse.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In April 2006 civil damages were awarded jointly against Dom David Pearce, a former head of the junior school at St Benedicts, and Ealing Abbey in the High Court in relation to an alleged assault by Dom Pearce on a pupil while teaching at St Benedict's School in the 1990s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was subsequently charged in November 2008 with 24 counts of indecent assault, sexual touching and gross indecency with six boys aged under 16.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The counts related to incidents before and after 2003, when the law was changed to create an offence of sexual touching.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After admitting his guilt at Isleworth Crown Court to offences going back to 1972 Pearce was jailed for eight years in October 2009.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The conduct of the Ealing monastic community, as trustee of the St. Benedict's Trust, was examined by the Charity Commission, which found that it had failed to take adequate measures to protect beneficiaries of the charity from Dom Pearce.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There has recently been an allegation of cover-up involving Ealing Abbey and abuse towards a female pupil at St Gregory's Roman Catholic Primary School, a state school in Woodfield Rd, Ealing, with strong links to the abbey.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The abuse is alleged to have occurred in the 1970s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Father William Manahan of Buckfast Abbey pleaded guilty at Exeter Crown Court to eight charges of sexually assaulting pupils.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Father Paul Couch was also found guilty earlier of two counts of serious sexual assault and 11 of indecent assault.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Father Couch committed the offences against six boys between 1972 and 1993 during two periods at the school.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was a Royal Navy chaplain from 1978 until 1983 and again from 1992.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 2007 he was sentenced to ten years in jail.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ampleforth College Arms</span><br />
<b style="font-size: x-small;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</span></b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Several monks and three members of the lay teaching staff at Ampleforth College, one of the leading Roman Catholic schools in the country, have molested children in their care.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1995 Fr Bernard Green, then a house-master, was arrested after indecently assaulting a sleeping boy in one of the school's dormitories.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He received two years' probation for an incident which was said to have "<i>petrified</i>" the boy concerned.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 2005 Fr Piers Grant-Ferris admitted 20 incidents between 1966 and 1975 including beating boys bare-handed on the buttocks, and taking temperatures rectally.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 2005 the former, Abbot Basil Hume, did not call in police when the initial incident came to light in 1975, but removed Father Grant-Ferris.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Several other incidents came to light in 2003, when the abbey hired a psychologist (?) to conduct risk assessments on staff.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Belmont Abbey - Herefordshire</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Father John Kinsey of Belmont Abbey, Herefordshire was sentenced to five years at Worcester Crown Court in 2005 by Judge Andrew Geddes for a series of serious offences relating to assaults on schoolboys attending Belmont Abbey School in the mid 1980s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The school closed in 1993.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Kinsey attacked three schoolboys while a monk at Belmont Abbey during a two-year period, grooming and attacking victims during bell ringing lessons and altar service duties.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The frequency of his attacks increased to a weekly basis before Kinsey was sent away from the Abbey for a short period to train as a priest.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Due to falling pupil numbers Belmont Abbey closed the school in the early 1990s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In January 2012, Father Richard White, a monk at Downside Abbey, near Westfield, Somerset, who formerly taught at its school, was jailed for five years for gross indecency and indecent assault against a pupil in the late 1980s.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">White, 66, who was known to pupils as Father Nick, had been allowed to continue teaching after he was first caught abusing a child in 1987 and was able to go on to groom and assault another pupil in the junior school.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was placed on a restricted ministry after the second incident but was not arrested until 2010.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Two other Downside monks, also former teachers, received police cautions during an 18-month criminal trial.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One of the cautioned monks has been named as Michael Hurt (Brother Anselm).</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Saint Benedict</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Abbot Primate Notker Wolf OSB</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'Feedback'</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It should be noted that these institutions, in which the various cases of abuse have been reported, are directly associated with the Benedictines in Ramsgate through the 'Confœderatio Benedictina Ordinis Sancti Benedicti' (Benedictine Confederation of the Order of Saint Benedict) (the Ramsgate Benedictines belonged to the Subiaco Cassinese Congregation).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Abbot Primate (head) of the Confederation of the Order of Saint Benedict is a 72 year old Bavarian (German), called Notker Wolf OSB, who plays electric guitar for the rock group 'Feedback' (4 CDs already) - <i>seriously </i>!</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And people wonder why there is a problem in the Roman Catholic Church !</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Perhaps if Notker spent more time looking into the activities of his monks, and less time trying to be a geriatric 'rock star' there would be fewer traumatised and abused young people in the world.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The official logo on the right is taken from the Confederation of the Order of Saint Benedict official website.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Holy Cross School</span><br />
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">a case history</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px;"><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Holy Cross - as originally built</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Holy Cross R.C. Secondary School (1931 - 1998) was a former Roman Catholic Secondary modern school and sixth form college located in Broadstairs, Kent, it was co-educational from years 7 to 11.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Holy Cross was built in 1930 for the Daughters of the Cross as a Convent, and by 1931 it was run as a residential open air school for sick and delicate children, and as a Convalescent home, run by Catholic nuns.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Daughters of the Cross</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Blessed Marie Thérèse Haze F.C</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Daughters of the Cross of Liège (French: Filles de la Croix) are Religious Sisters in the Catholic Church who are members of a religious congregation founded in 1833 by the Blessed Marie Thérèse Haze, F.C. (1782 - 1876). Their original mission is focused on caring for the needs of their society through education and nursing care. The Sisters began to serve in other countries with their establishing a foundation in Germany in 1849. At the invitation of the Vicar Apostolic of Bombay, they opened schools in the British Raj in 1861. This led to their working in the United Kingdom in 1863.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It closed down in 1939 due to World War II, when it acted as a hospital, and re-opened in 1947.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1962 it became a Voluntary aided </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic Secondary modern school which was mixed sex, and catered for around 520 pupils.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Entrance to Chapel<br />
Holy Cross</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The school was situated in Broadstairs, Kent, for children from the ages of 11 to 17 and was under the controlling authority of Kent County Council (KCC).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 31-years-old open-air Convent school was adapted at a cost of £49,000.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A voluntary aided school is a state-funded school in England and Wales in which a foundation or trust (usually a religious organisation), contributes to building costs and has a substantial influence in the running of the school. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Such schools have more autonomy than voluntary controlled schools, which are entirely funded by the state. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In most cases the foundation or trust own the buildings.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In some circumstances Local Authorities can help the governing body in buying a site, or can provide a site or building free of charge. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Catholic Church chose to retain control of its schools, while more than half of Church of England schools became voluntary controlled. The state contribution to capital works for VA schools was increased to 75% by the Education Act 1959, and is now 90%. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Voluntary aided schools are a kind of "maintained school", meaning that they receive all their running costs from central government via the local authority. They do not charge fees to students, although parents are usually<i> encouraged to pay a voluntary contribution </i>towards the schools' maintenance funds. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">By the 1970s, most local authorities were in the final stages of reorganising secondary education along comprehensive lines. Although the Roman Catholic hierarchy supported this change, many non-Catholic voluntary aided grammar schools opposed it. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Local authorities could <i>not</i> compel voluntary aided schools to change any aspect of their admissions, but they could submit a proposal to the Minister to cease to maintain a school.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The ceremony was performed by Abbot Parry, U.S.B. of St. Augustine's Abbey, Ramsgate, on behalf of Bishop Cowderoy of Southwark, and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Canon J. Crowley, Ph.D., Chairman of the Diocesan School's Commission, presided.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">The Original Design for the Grange and Ramsgate Abbey</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The church is St Augustine's is situated on the town's westcliff. The architect, A. W. N. Pugin, built the church at his<i> own expense</i> between 1845 and 1852 in the neo-Gothic style. <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-art-literature.html" target="_blank">Pugin </a>and other members of his family are buried in the chantry chapel in the church. The church's dedication commemorates Augustine, the first Archbishop of Canterbury, who landed at Ramsgate in AD 597 bringing Christianity to Britain for the first time since the Roman Empire. <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-art-literature.html" target="_blank">Pugin</a> <i>donated</i> the church to the Catholic Archdiocese of Southwark before his premature death in 1852. In March 2012, the church was designated a <i>shrine of St. Augustine of Canterbury</i>; this ended a five-century absence of a shrine to St. Augustine as the original (at St. Augustine's Abbey, Canterbury) was destroyed during the Reformation.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Ramsgate Abbey Church - <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-art-literature.html" target="_blank">Pugin</a></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">The Grange Chapel</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Thomas Grant, first Bishop of Southwark, invited the Italian abbot Dom Pietro Casaretto to found an abbey on the opposite side of the road from the church. By 1856 arrangements were concluded and the first monk, Dom Wilfrid Alcock, arrived to take charge at the Ramsgate mission. The monastery of St Augustine of Canterbury was built in 1860-1861, the first Benedictine monastery in England since the Reformation, designed by Pugin's son Edward. Peter Paul Pugin added the east wing to the monastery in 1901, and the library was built in 1926 designed by Charles Purcell, Pugin's grandson. St. Augustine's church was the abbey's church until 2010.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">As a result of the</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">rapid </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">decline of the Catholic church in the area, on 23 December 2010, the monks quit Thanet, moving to the Franciscan Friary at Chilworth, Surrey.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Benedictine Monks</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ordo Sancti Benedicti or the Black Monks, in reference to the colour of the habit, is a Roman Catholic religious order of independent monastic communities that observe the Rule of Saint Benedict.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Within the order, each individual community (which may be a monastery, a priory or abbey) maintains its own autonomy, while the organization as a whole exists to represent their mutual interests.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank">Pope Leo XIII</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Benedictine Confederation, which was established in 1883 by <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank">Pope Leo XIII</a> in his brief 'Summum semper', is the international governing body of the order, headed by the Abbot Primate.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Members of the order generally use the initials O.S.B. after their name.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Benedictine abbots have full jurisdiction of their abbey and thus absolute authority over the monks or nuns who are resident.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This authority includes the power to assign duties, to decide which books may or may not be read, to regulate comings and goings, and to punish and to excommunicate, in the sense of an enforced isolation from the monastic community.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the Roman Catholic Church, according to the norms of the Code of Canon Law 1983, a Benedictine abbey is a "religious institute", and its professed members are therefore members of the "Consecrated Life", commonly referred to as "Religious".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Benedictine monks who have not been ordained and all nuns are members of the laity among the Christian faithful.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Only those Benedictine monks who have been ordained as a deacon or priest are also members of the clergy of the Roman Catholic Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Benedictine Oblates endeavor to embrace the spirit of the Benedictine vow in their own life in the world.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">St Augustines College</span><br />
<span style="color: red; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">for more information about Holy Cross School scroll down</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Associated with the abbey was St Augustines College.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A study of the history of St Augustines College and the Abbey school is included in this case history because the attention given to </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">St Augustines College b</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">y the Roman Catholic authorities, and in particular <span style="text-align: left;">Abbot Gilbert Jones OSB, </span>the Chairman of the Board of Governors of Holy Cross School, was responsible for the decline of Holy Cross School, and the lack of oversight of those responsible for the school, such as the Heads and Deputy heads.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Abbot Gilbert Jones OSB</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Abbot Gilbert Jones OSB - sometime Lord Abbot of Ramsgate was the former Abbot President of the Subiaco Congregation.</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Abbot Gilbert Jones OSB, died on 5 October 2004 at his residence, Saint Augustine's Abbey, Ramsgate, England.</span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Born at Chester in 1926, he professed vows at Ramsgate in 1964 following a career as a stage and television actor in England.</span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is interesting, however, that no record of Gilbert Jones' acting career has been found, which suggests that it was neither 'glittering' or significant.</span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He became abbot of Ramsgate in 1972 and was elected Abbot President of the Subiaco Congregation in 1988.</span></span></div>
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<span style="text-align: justify;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During his time as Abbot President he lived at Sant'Ambrogio in Rome, but visited monasteries of the Congregation on every continent from Vietnam to Burkina Faso.</span></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was directly responsible for </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">St Augustine's College (the Abbey School)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The first incarnation of the school associated with the Abbey, opened in 1865, and took boy boarders of public-school age, thirteen to eighteen.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Abbey had been left a sizeable house and grounds by the late Rev. Alfred Luck, to be used as a college, but for the first couple of years the handful of boys who made up the initial intake slept in the monastery itself, and ate with the monks.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">More or less from the outset, the school showed a liking for putting on plays and <i>improving variety shows </i>(?) for the benefit of local residents.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">St Augustine's College, the first incarnation of the school associated with the Abbey, opened in 1865 and took boy boarders of public-school age, thirteen to eighteen.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Abbey had been left a sizeable house and grounds by the late Rev. Alfred Luck, to be used as a college, but for the first couple of years the handful of boys who made up the initial intake slept in the monastery itself and ate with the monks.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">More or less from the outset, the school showed a liking for putting on plays and improving variety shows for the benefit of local residents.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1867 the college moved into Rev. Luck's house, later known as St Gregory's (see below).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In about 1870 the building was enlarged with the addition of a large, high extension built on the site of a yard to the rear of the house, and designed by Edward Pugin.</span></div>
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Beneath the school there was an elaborate network of tunnels, including a <i>subterranean ballroom</i> (?), with entrances at the top and bottom of the cliff and, supposedly, a private entrance inside The Grange. </div>
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The school grew to nearly sixty students, but by 1876 the Order that ran it had got into financial difficulties, and in 1877 student numbers had dropped to twenty-seven, falling further to nineteen by the following summer, despite the college being supported financially by a generous benefactress.</div>
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It was during this period, however, that the school nurtured the genius of the great electrical engineer Sebastian Ziani de Ferranti.</div>
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The school at that time was rather like a '<i>gentleman's club'</i>.</div>
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It was quite well thought-of academically, had numerous hobby-clubs run by the boys themselves, and for such a small school it did at least reasonably well at a surprisingly wide range of inter-school sports.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Fr Erkenwald Egan</td></tr>
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In 1881 a small preparatory school for boys aged about seven to thirteen was started in St Placid's, but it moved out after a few years.</div>
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St Augustine's lost its connection with this prep. school in 1886.</div>
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Student numbers at the College rose, but fell back to the low twenties by 1888, partly due to the appointment of a Fr Erkenwald Egan as prefect of studies and discipline: Fr Erkenwald was an unpopular choice, although his popularity was to receive a filip in 1892, when it was discovered that on the football pitch he was a goalkeeper of real genius.</div>
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Also in 1888, an 'Old Boy' named Sir Henry Tichborne payed for the installation of a very luxurious school library, with furnishings by Pugin.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St Gregory's<br />
Main School Building of St Augustione's College</td></tr>
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In 1889 a dynamic monk named Fr Jerome Vaughan offered his services to regenerate the school, and then used his <i>aristocratic connections</i> to attract more students.</div>
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Numbers rose so fast that within one term a house at 1 Royal Crescent was purchased to serve as an overflow dormitory for senior boys, and named St Benet's.</div>
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Fr Jerome was appointed as rector, in which post he served for a year only, during which a second overflow house in West Cliff Road was rented for the purpose of housing parlour boarders, and renamed St Mildred's.</div>
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Parlour boarders were the children of wealthy parents who were deceased or abroad, and paid for their children to have superior accommodation and perhaps <i>their own servant</i>, and generally to treat the school as a <i>hotel </i>where they happened to also receive tuition, rather than a school where they happened also to eat and sleep.<br />
Towards the end of 1890, after the departure of Fr Jerome, St Benet's was moved to larger premises at Spencer House, Spencer Square.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1893, with student numbers now in the nineties, it was decided to expand St Gregory's, the main school building, by adding add a new wing complete with chapel and purpose-built refectory.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thereafter, the boys would attend services mainly in their own chapel rather than using the priory's rather magnificent Arts and Crafts Gothic Pugin church across the road, and the old refectory became a<i> billiards room</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1897, the priory was elevated to the status of an Abbey, and over the next few years the school and its associated 'Old Augustinians Society' throve.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Around 1900 St Mildred's was closed, and the overflow transferred to St Placid's, and in 1902 St Benet's also closed due to falling student numbers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The new science laboratories, erected in 1905, had to be done on the cheap, and the school continued to decline owing to a shortage of staff, even though its academic performance was good.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In June 1914 the 'Old Augustinians' held a grand celebration, but two months later the western world was at war.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For the first nine months of the war, St Augustine's played host to a group of Belgian refugee students, in a satellite unit called St Gregory's School in Chartham Terrace, but falling student numbers and repeated Zeppelin raids made the school's position untenable.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The first incarnation of St Augustine's College closed in July 1917.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1919, a preparatory school for boys, aged seven to thirteen, opened under an amiable headmaster named Dom Anthony Flannery, in the same set of buildings as the old college, and with much the same organisation and institutions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Abbey School', as it was now called, acquired better playing fields in 1921, and in 1922 the students were divided into two "houses", imaginatively nam</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">ed the 'Blacks' and the 'Whites'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1924 Dom Anthony was succeeded by headmaster Dom Adrian Taylor, and his second master, Fr Edward Hull.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the 1940s Fr Hull was to became headmaster in his own right.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During this period, control of the school clubs and extracurricular activities was taken away from the boys and given to the masters, and parents were forbidden to take their children out of school, or visit them, at any time other than half-term.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nevertheless, the school had an active cultural life, especially drama productions and a flourishing history society.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Fr David Parry B.A</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1934 the headmaster, Dom Adrian, was promoted to Abbot of the monastery.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He departed from the school and took Fr Edward Hull with him.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The new headmaster was Fr David Parry B.A., the author of 'Scholastic Century'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The school at that time seemed to be thriving, running smoothly and with a high level of academic achievement, but storms were gathering in the wider world.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-eNrH0YF_mK4/Ur4RjZe2BTI/AAAAAAAAWxU/Mio9ZcL_wWk/s1600/Madeley+Court+-+St+Augustione's+College+-+Ramsgate+Kent+-+Catholic+Church.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="173" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-eNrH0YF_mK4/Ur4RjZe2BTI/AAAAAAAAWxU/Mio9ZcL_wWk/s320/Madeley+Court+-+St+Augustione's+College+-+Ramsgate+Kent+-+Catholic+Church.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1938 it was decided that in the event of war the school would relocate to a large house named Madeley Court a few hundred yards from the River Ouse, in the outstandingly pretty village of Hemingford Grey near St Ives in Huntingdonshire.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This house, the centrepiece of a small estate of the same name including outbuildings and grounds and a couple of small fields, had been made available to the school by the owner, a Miss Margeurite Selby.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When war broke out, in September 1939, and the South Coast was declared a restricted zone, the senior forms, consisting of thirty to forty boys went with headmaster Parry and three other Fathers to Douai, while the three younger forms went to Madeley Court along with the Abbey's Father Prior - the same Fr Edward Hull who had taught at the school until 1934.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fr Hull and the junior boys set about sorting Madeley Court out and turning what Parry calls "ancient stables" into a classroom block, preparatory to the arrival of the rest of the school. Meanwhile the now vacant school buildings in Ramsgate were at some point taken over by the army, and the tunnels beneath 'The Grange' became an air-raid shelter.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At Douai the senior years were given the use of "a couple of dormitories, three classrooms, and some playing fields", as well as accommodation for the four staff members.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The senior school stayed at Douai for two terms, through what was to prove a very hard winter. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1946 David Parry was removed as headmaster, - he was later to become Abbot of St Augustine's 1957-1972.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The new head was Fr Edward Hull, now a Wing Commander. At the same time, the school acquired its own scout troop.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St Augustines Choir </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The school continued at Madeley Court into the 1950s, and made many improvements in its infrastructure there, but in the end the building still wasn't really adequate.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 1951 the junior boys were moved back to Ramsgate and placed in The Grange, the grand house belonging to the Abbey on the opposite side of St Augustine's Road from the original school.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By this point the tunnels under The Grange had been declared unsafe and sealed off, and much of the system had been filled with concrete.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1953 the original school building in Ramsgate, St Gregory's, was re-opened, but this time as a day school for local boys, under Fr David Parry.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Assumption House</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1957 the junior boys from this day school were merged with the junior boarders at The Grange over the road.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Abbey now had one junior school at The Grange, with both boarders and day pupils, and the older years split between day boys at St Gregory's and boarders at Madeley Court.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1957, under a new head, Fr Bernard Waldron, St Gregory's was substantially re-modelled to create more dormitories and classrooms, and the boys from Madeley Court were shoe-horned into it.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By 1960 the school was taking some older boys and seeking recognition as an independent grammar school, but this was <i>refused</i> at that time because its age demographic was too confused.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 1960 St Augustine's purchased a newly vacant convent-school complex called Assumption House from the Sisters of the Assumption at Goodwin Road, Pegwell Bay, about a thousand yards west of the Abbey.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The prep-school boys of the Abbey School were moved to Assumption House, and St Augustine's College was reborn as an <i>independent grammar school</i> occupying both The Grange and St Gregory's. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1961 the two senior years were moved into The Grange and St Placid's was turned into an art department.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the end of 1962 the house next to St Maur's was bought and converted into staff quarters, leaving St Maur's free to be used by the Sixth Form; the Fifth Form moved into the top floor of St Gregory's (known as the "cock-loft") and the junior boys were rotated into The Grange.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St Augustines Abbey School Westgate </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 1971 both the Abbey School and St Augustine's College relocated to Westgate-on-Sea, where they took over another former convent school, close to and twinned with the Ursuline Convent School for Girls.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Assumption House was pulled down, although its ornate entrance survives as a listed building, halfway down the west side of Goodwin Road.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Interestingly, some have reported The Grange as having "<i>an effect that can drag you down. There is a negative energy there that is tangible. Something is very wrong there - that place is alive with something awful.</i>" It has been speculated that this could be due to some kind of occult presence - and similar effects have been noted at Holy Cross School, just down the coast.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">St Augustine's closed down in 1995, a hundred and thirty years after it opened.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">for more information <a href="http://members.madasafish.com/~cj_whitehound/family/St_Augustines.htm" target="_blank">see http://members.madasafish.com/~cj_whitehound/family/St_Augustines.htm</a></span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Holy Cross School</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Returning to Holy Cross, the <i>poor and much neglected</i> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">relative</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">,</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">of the Abbey School, - over 310 senior pupils were transferred to the new Holy Cross school from St. Gregory's, Margate and St. Augustine's, Ramsgate, both of which had been all-age schools, and subsequently became Catholic primary schools for children up to the age of eleven.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Raphael - Vision of the Cross</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The motto of the school was '<i>In hoc signo vinces</i>', which was a Latin rendering of the Greek phrase "ἐν τούτῳ νίκα", and means "<i>in this sign you will conquer</i>", and was taken over from the Daughters of the Cross, the original builders and incumbents of the site.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-83lkPGNF430/Ur9h5ckhJeI/AAAAAAAAW3s/gCtutV_nCag/s1600/Chi+Rho+-+Spear+of+Destiny+-+Occult+History+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-83lkPGNF430/Ur9h5ckhJeI/AAAAAAAAW3s/gCtutV_nCag/s200/Chi+Rho+-+Spear+of+Destiny+-+Occult+History+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.png" width="183" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Chi Rho<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The motto originates in an account by the historian, bishop Eusebius of Ceasaria, who states that Constantine was marching with his army (Eusebius does not specify the actual location of the event, but it is clearly not in the camp at Rome), when he looked up to the sun and saw a cross of light above it, and with it the Greek words "ἐν τούτῳ νίκα" ("In this, conquer"), often rendered in Latin as 'In hoc signo vinces' ("in this sign, you will conquer").</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-DSw-tYIDugU/Ur3Lqv4-NCI/AAAAAAAAWvE/W_kzrAu2_-U/s1600/n709407928_277762_6395.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" height="195" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-DSw-tYIDugU/Ur3Lqv4-NCI/AAAAAAAAWvE/W_kzrAu2_-U/s200/n709407928_277762_6395.png" width="200" /></a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Not surprisingly, while taking the motto 'In hoc signo vinces' </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">from Constantine, the Chi Rho - which was the sign in which Constantine actually conquered - was not used as the school badge.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Yet another example of the 'muddle' associated with the whole enterprise, and those of a superstitious nature may say that the use of the motto without the appropriate symbol was a most<i> un-auspicious decision</i>.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;">Ken Knight</span></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Holy Cross - Main Entrance</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The first Headmaster of the school was Mr. K. Knight, who had previously been Headmaster of St. Gregory's R.C. Primary School, Margate.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mr Knight was a well known and popular <i>'character</i>' in the Roman Catholic community in Thanet.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately, he was somewhat eccentric, (although not as eccentric as his wife).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was a competent primary school teacher, but was undoubtedly out of his depth in a Secondary school, and was incapable of maintaining adequate standards of discipline.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a result, the school was incapable of making any meaningful academic progress until the pupils who had come under Knight's influence (or lack of influence) had left the school.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When Mr Knight retired he received a Papal Medal - (like Jimmy Saville) but in his case for his <i>services</i> to Catholic Education.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">It may be pertinent to note here that Roman Catholic Jimmy Saville was a close friend and confidant of Cardinal Keith O’Brien (who quit amid allegations of “<i>inappropriate acts</i>” towards fellow priests. He was also a close friend and confidant of Cardinal Basil Hume.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Bernard Wilding</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There was, however, a problem in finding a new headmaster, as there was no candidate prepared to take on the task.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the end the deputy headmaster, Bernard Wilding, was appointed to the '<i>top job</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately, Mr Wilding was no better at asserting his authority over the pupils than Mr Knight, although he often asserted his authority over his beleaguered and benighted staff.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unlike Mr Knight, however, Wilding was no '<i>loveable eccentric</i>', but was rather a distant and ultimately inadequate individual, totally under the dominating influence of his wife, Mary.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-r67Ci37j0AQ/Ur7lvp7fboI/AAAAAAAAW1I/syI6d-q1yRg/s1600/Edward+Elgar+-+Occult+History+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-r67Ci37j0AQ/Ur7lvp7fboI/AAAAAAAAW1I/syI6d-q1yRg/s200/Edward+Elgar+-+Occult+History+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" width="112" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Sir Edward Elgar</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0wyRBts29jY/Ur7leNeUeBI/AAAAAAAAW1A/7rcoaJMHSok/s1600/Graham+Greene+-+Bernard+Wilding+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0wyRBts29jY/Ur7leNeUeBI/AAAAAAAAW1A/7rcoaJMHSok/s200/Graham+Greene+-+Bernard+Wilding+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-art-literature.html" target="_blank">Graham Greene</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bernard Wilding was essentially a pre-Vatican II, middle class, English Catholic, steeped in <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-art-literature.html" target="_blank">Graham Greene</a> novels and the music of Edward Elgar.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Concilium Oecumenicum Vaticanum Secundum - informally known as Vatican II addressed relations between the Roman Catholic Church and the 'so-called' modern world. It was the twenty-first ecumenical council of the Catholic Church</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Graham Greene's novels often powerfully portray the Christian drama of the struggles within the individual soul from the Catholic perspective. Greene was criticised for certain tendencies in an <i>unorthodox</i> direction – in the world, sin is omnipresent to the degree that the vigilant struggle to avoid sinful conduct is doomed to failure, - and Wilding's 'distance' and lack of positive action mirrored this theme in Greene's books.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MTMDQdh3vAU/Ur7oqr46h9I/AAAAAAAAW1U/LREuXHuDFSY/s1600/John+Henry+Newman+-++Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MTMDQdh3vAU/Ur7oqr46h9I/AAAAAAAAW1U/LREuXHuDFSY/s200/John+Henry+Newman+-++Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="166" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">John Henry Newman<br />
<a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-and-homosexuality.html" target="_blank">fay and rumoured to be homosexual</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Elgar, of course, is one of the few significant English Catholic composers, and is famous for his setting of <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-and-homosexuality.html" target="_blank">John Henry Newman</a>'s somewhat lugubrious poem 'The Dream of Gerontius'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a young man, studying to be a teacher, Wilding had even gone to his local priest to ask for permission</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> to read Gibbon's 'The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">', because Gibbon's works were included in the Index of forbidden books.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Index Librorum Prohibitorum was a list of publications prohibited by the Catholic Church. A first version (the 'Pauline Index') was promulgated by Pope Paul IV in 1559, and a revised and somewhat relaxed form (the 'Tridentine Index') was authorized at the Council of Trent. The promulgation of the Index marked the "<i>turning-point in the freedom of enquiry</i>" in the Catholic world. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The 20th edition, which was in force at the time in question, contained 4,000 titles censored for various reasons: heresy, moral deficiency, sexual explicitness, and so on. That some atheists, such as Schopenhauer and Nietzsche, were not included was due to the general (Tridentine) rule that heretical works (i.e., works that contradict Catholic dogma) are ipso facto forbidden. Some important works are absent simply because nobody bothered to denounce them (?).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">'The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire' is a book of history written by the English historian Edward Gibbon, which traces the trajectory of Western civilization (as well as the Islamic and Mongolian conquests) from the height of the Roman Empire to the fall of Byzantium. The work covers the history of the Roman Empire, Europe, and the Catholic Church from 98 to 1590 and discusses the decline of the Roman Empire in the East and West. Because of its relative objectivity and heavy use of primary sources, at the time its methodology became a model for later historians. </span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Essentially a lower middle class boy aspiring to the upper middle class, Wilding gained a superficial veneer of academic knowledge (specialising in English Literature).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The real power behind this aspiration to the upper middle class, however, was Wilding's wife, Mary.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A Catholic convert, she had the desire (to rise socially, that is), but not the knowledge,</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Living in a home decorated in 'chintzy' style, with 'settees' rather than sofas, a 'lounge' rather that a 'drawing room, and 'serviettes' rather that napkins, the pretensions to being 'smart' (which Mary would call 'posh') failed miserably.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uJ84pwGsZH4/Us33HAwmzcI/AAAAAAAAXv4/9QYo7z_wSu8/s1600/Fish+and+Chip+Dinner+-+Bernard+and+Mar+Wilding+-Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford+.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="194" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-uJ84pwGsZH4/Us33HAwmzcI/AAAAAAAAXv4/9QYo7z_wSu8/s1600/Fish+and+Chip+Dinner+-+Bernard+and+Mar+Wilding+-Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford+.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Formal Dinner ?</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">U and non-U English usage, with "U" standing for "upper class", and "non-U" representing the aspiring middle classes, is part of the terminology of popular discourse of social dialects in Britain. Those aspiring to the middle, and upper middle classes prefer "<i>fancy</i>" or fashionable words, even neologisms and often euphemisms, in attempts to make themselves sound more refined. Most of the differences remain very much current, and therefore perfectly usable as class indicators.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When Wilding invited a new member of staff and his wife to dinner, the bemused couple found themselves eating fish and chips, bought at the local 'chippy'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The only saving grace was the 'grace' said before the meal, and the fact that the 'fish and chip' supper was eaten off china plates, rather than newspaper, and that cutlery was provided.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite the social faux-pas, Wilding had 'hitched his star' to an ancient and powerful institution (into which he had been born), not realising that it would then undergo a radical reformation - Vatican II.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fH3SWUFb2ig/Us35sOi28II/AAAAAAAAXwE/m89ZBCkuD1k/s1600/Concilium+Oecumenicum+Vaticanum+Secundum++-+Second+vatican+Council+-++Bernard+and+Mar+Wilding+-Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford+.JPG" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="302" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-fH3SWUFb2ig/Us35sOi28II/AAAAAAAAXwE/m89ZBCkuD1k/s1600/Concilium+Oecumenicum+Vaticanum+Secundum++-+Second+vatican+Council+-++Bernard+and+Mar+Wilding+-Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford+.JPG" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Concilium Oecumenicum Vaticanum Secundum </td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Concilium Oecumenicum Vaticanum Secundum (informally known as Vatican II) addressed relations between the Roman Catholic Church and the so-called 'modern world' (forgetting that the world, as we experience it, is by its very nature modern). It was the twenty-first ecumenical council of the Catholic Church and the second to be held at Saint Peter's Basilica in the Vatican. The council, through the Holy See, formally opened under the pontificate of Pope John XXIII on 11 October 1962 and closed under Pope Paul VI on the Feast of the Immaculate Conception in 1965. The matter that had the most immediate effect on the lives of individual Catholics, was the revision of the liturgy. The central idea was that there ought to be greater lay participation in the liturgy. In the mid-1960s, permissions were granted to celebrate most of the Mass in vernacular languages, including the canon from 1967 onwards.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Set adrift in a sea of theological and liturgical change, he decided to keep quiet, and try not to be noticed.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was unfortunate enough to inherit a school which had less than fifty percent Catholic pupils, and an equally poor ratio with regard to the staff - with most of his senior staff non-Catholics.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With regard to the teaching of religion Wilding appeared to be at a complete loss, and he had no one to turn to on his staff, having totally alienated the only member of staff who was qualified to advise him on aspects of Religious Education, (a member of staff who had been trained at the prestigious St Mary's College of the University of London).</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ne4mt5WVHPo/UsL-1aybk6I/AAAAAAAAXIg/bZwUQBHLxMQ/s1600/The+College+Chapel+-+St+Mary's+Strawberry+Hill+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ne4mt5WVHPo/UsL-1aybk6I/AAAAAAAAXIg/bZwUQBHLxMQ/s200/The+College+Chapel+-+St+Mary's+Strawberry+Hill+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" width="161" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">College Chapel - Strawberry Hill</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-i0qFyjqQ7YU/UsCkBaZFP_I/AAAAAAAAW60/_blsZL-KFYU/s1600/Strawberry+Hill+-+Twickenham+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="184" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-i0qFyjqQ7YU/UsCkBaZFP_I/AAAAAAAAW60/_blsZL-KFYU/s320/Strawberry+Hill+-+Twickenham+-+So+Long+Ago+So+Clear+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Strawberry Hill - Twickenham</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">St Mary's University College is a university situated in Strawberry Hill, Twickenham in South West London. Founded in 1850, it is generally acknowledged to be the <i>oldest</i> Roman Catholic college in the UK.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The university college is known colloquially as "Simmery's", "Simmies". </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Its alumni are known as "Simmarians". The original Strawberry Hill buildings were designed by </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Horace Walpole in a fanciful Gothic style.</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> At the time in question St Mary's was run by the </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Congregation of the Mission (</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">the Vincentians)</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The essential tool in religious instruction, the Bible, was purchased in vast quantities, however, Wilding, against qualified advice, chose the 'Good News Bible'.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Good News Bible</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Good News Bible (GNB), also called the Good News Translation (GNT) in the United States, is an English language translation of the Bible by the American Bible Society. It was first published as the New Testament under the name Good News for Modern Man in 1966. It was Anglicised into British English by the British and Foreign Bible Society.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The cover of the Good News Bible (Illustrated Version) is a '</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">dead give away</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is obviously intended for little children, and typifies Wilding's view of his pupils - whom he saw as '<i>little</i> <i>children</i>', rather than a young people.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What he didn't seem to understand was that there was a superb, modern Catholic translation of the Bible available, known as the 'Jerusalem Bible' - and, being a Catholic Bible it contained the Apocrypha - which was<i> omitted</i> from Protestant Bibles, such as the 'Good News Bible'.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-q44LU77HP0A/Ur7zxhKnKTI/AAAAAAAAW10/D6wvF3e8fxM/s1600/Jerusalem+Bible+-++Bernard+Wilding+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-q44LU77HP0A/Ur7zxhKnKTI/AAAAAAAAW10/D6wvF3e8fxM/s200/Jerusalem+Bible+-++Bernard+Wilding+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="160" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Jerusalem Bible</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The<b> </b><b>ἀπόκρυφος</b> (Apocrypha) denotes the collection of ancient books found in the Bible, in a separate section between the Old and New Testaments. Although the term apocrypha had been in use since the 5th century, it was in Luther's Bible of 1534 that the Apocrypha was first published as a separate intertestamental section. In England, the Protestant Westminster Confession of 1647 excluded the Apocrypha from the canon. In the Catholic Church the canonicity of the Apocrypha was explicitly affirmed at the Council of Trent in 1546 and Synod of Jerusalem (1672) respectively. The Apocrypha is included in the 'Jerusalem Bible'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><span style="color: #ea9999;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Jerusalem Bible is an English-language translation of the Bible which was first introduced to the English-speaking public in 1966. As a Roman Catholic Bible, it includes the deuterocanonical books (</span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Apocrypha)</span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> along with the sixty-six others included in Protestant Bibles. It also contains<i> copious footnotes</i> and <i>introductions</i>. </span><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Excerpts from the Jerusalem Bible are used in the <i>Lectionary for Mass</i> that was approved by the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales, and that is used in most of the Bishop's Conferences of the English-speaking world.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now we are left with the question - was Bernard Wilding a 'crypto Protestant' ? - or was he just a penny-pinching fool ? (or perhaps he was both !)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Undoubtedly, having been brought up a Roman Catholic, it was hardly likely that he was working for some anti-Catholic cabal - but the 'Good News' Bibles were so much <i>cheaper</i> - and could be used in weekly 'Non-Catholic' assemblies organised by a committed Protestant geography teacher by the name of Fred Fielder.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The fact that the only <i>qualified</i> Catholic teacher of Religious Education favoured the Jerusalem Bible, (with its copious footnotes and introductions, and approval by the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales) seemed to matter not a jot to Wilding.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And what did the Chairman of the Board of Governors think about Protestant Bibles being used in a Catholic School ?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Well, Abbot Gilbert Jones OSB, the fay Chairman of the Board of Governors, couldn't care less - his concern was the Abbey School - where the money was.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One of the skills that one would imagine would come naturally to an experience teacher, and in particular a headmaster, would be the construction of an effective, workable timetable.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For Bernard Wilding the mysteries of the timetable remained just that - mysteries - and for weeks classes would turn up to rooms which were already occupied, while in other parts of the school rooms would lie empty and unused.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His timetables, until he was given a relatively competent (and we use the word competent advisably) deputy headmaster, were a total disaster.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Oddly, Wilding was able to 'laugh off' the daily disaster of his 'excuse for a timetable', while at the same time high-handedly criticizing junior staff members for the slightest little mistake.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One strange feature of his timetables was his habit of allocating himself for a set number of lessons each week.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was strange, because he almost <i>never </i>reported for the lessons he had allocated to himself.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Instead, he would require a member of staff, who was usualy in the staff-room marking books or preparing a lesson, to '<i>cover</i>' for him, and when that became too embarrassing, he would simply leave the class to its own devices, <i>unsupervised</i>.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Not really the way to obtain the respect of either the pupils or the staff.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilding was not an easy person to be with for any length of time, mainly because of his odd use of 'body-language'</span></div>
<br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">'Body Language' refers to various forms of non-verbal communication, wherein a person may reveal clues as to some unspoken intention or feeling through their physical behaviour. These behaviours can include body posture, gestures, facial expressions, and eye movements. Body language is typically subconscious behaviour, and is therefore considered distinct from sign language, which is a fully conscious and intentional act of communication. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Body language may provide clues as to the attitude or state of mind of a person. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Body language is significant to communication and relationships. It is relevant to management and leadership in business.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When standing Wilding's favourite position was to stand with feet close together, with his arms folded on his chest, while exhibiting a blank stare.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One of the most basic and powerful body-language signals is when a person crosses his arms across the chest, and it usually means</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> mean that a person is expressing opposition.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A harsh or blank facial expression often indicates<i> outright hostility</i>.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So here we have a man who was almost permanently hostile to those around him.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so it is not surprising that this strange man was far from successful in both his management of staff and his management of pupils.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-sKgROZYx2_w/UsBoKHmAfbI/AAAAAAAAW6E/aYBVHqSEiJU/s1600/Body+Language+-+Bernard+Wilding+-+.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="134" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-sKgROZYx2_w/UsBoKHmAfbI/AAAAAAAAW6E/aYBVHqSEiJU/s200/Body+Language+-+Bernard+Wilding+-+.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">This is <i>not</i> Bernard Wilding<br />
(far too good looking)</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When sitting Wilding exhibited a very odd favoured position.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">he would lean back in his chair, with his legs crossed at the ankles, and his hands clasped behind his head.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Leaning back with the arms spread and held behind the head is part of the 'dominant cluster', and is how we use our body to <i>intimidate </i>someone else, or when we want to be perceived as <i>being in control </i>of the situation. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The key driving force of the 'dominant cluster' is an observation about how much space the person is taking up. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This will be seen when a person tries to show his authority by requiring a great deal larger of an area for his presence. </span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This is a form of territoriality.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The legs crossed at the ankles is referred to as the 'ankle lock,' and is is considered to be a <i>very negative</i> signal, and means a <i>high level of defensiveness </i>in both men and women.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When such a posture is used in conjunction with a large desk, in a huge office, then one can be in no doubt that Wilding was suffering from an ego fantasy which bore no relationship to the true manner in which he was perceived by both staff and pupils.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To be confronted with an individual holding this posture for a whole interview must have been very unnerving, and undoubtedly accounts for the lack of empathy and poor managerial relations that bedevilled staff relationships throughout Wilding's time as headmaster.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In considering Wilding's 'ego fantasy', we are inevitably drawn to the strange matter of the Holy Cross 'Fresco' (there is some doubt as to whether it was actually a fresco or simply a mural).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;">The Holy Cross Mural</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For some reason Wilding decided that the grimly empty entrance foyer needed some form of decoration.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A wall painting was the proposed, and Wilding made contact with an 'artist' - and we use that term advisedly - who had previously taught at the school.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0D2iE85-Z-g/UsBt803q0OI/AAAAAAAAW6U/epIsK-FwC98/s1600/Malcolm+Pitt.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-0D2iE85-Z-g/UsBt803q0OI/AAAAAAAAW6U/epIsK-FwC98/s1600/Malcolm+Pitt.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Malcolm Pitt</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was Malcolm Pitt, a Communist Party member, who also managed to be a Roman Catholic, and an admirer of St Francis of Assisi (this was at a time when it was fashionable in pseudo-intellectual Roman Catholic circles to be a Marxist or a Communist - and no, we are <i>not</i> joking - they called themselves 'Marxist-Catholics').</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">We are also led to believe that Pitt worked for the Catholic Bishops' Conference of England and Wales as the Secretary of the 'World of Work Committee' and the 'Committee for Public Life'.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was also apparently appointed to the 'Pontifical Council for Justice and Peace', meeting Pope John Paul II several times.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(This is a good example of '<i>reds under the altar'</i> rather than '<i>reds under the bed</i>', and shows the appalling state of the Roman Catholic Church in recent times)</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Before becoming Principal of the International Franciscan Study Centre in Canterbury, Pitt gained a doctorate with his investigation into 'the Extent that Marx's Materialist Conception of History is Comparable with the Principles of Catholic Social Teaching, Particularly as Expounded by John Paul II' (one wonders at this point who is fooling who ?).</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the time of the mural painting Pitt was driving around in a second hand Rolls Royce (?) - which seems a little odd for a dedicated Marxist - even a Catholic Marxist.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So how is the mural related to Wilding's 'ego fantasy' ?</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Well first let's look at the unlikely subject - the 'Finding of the True Cross'.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Gghq0lHhSJ4/UsBzMuIuyqI/AAAAAAAAW6k/KZGR-3hSjTQ/s1600/finding+and+recognition+of+the+true+cross+-+Piero+della+Francesca+-+Bernard+Wilding+-+Eileen+Teehan+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="147" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Gghq0lHhSJ4/UsBzMuIuyqI/AAAAAAAAW6k/KZGR-3hSjTQ/s320/finding+and+recognition+of+the+true+cross+-+Piero+della+Francesca+-+Bernard+Wilding+-+Eileen+Teehan+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.jpg" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Finding of the True Cross - Piero della Francesca - 1466</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">According to post-Nicene historians, such as Socrates Scholasticus, the Byzantine Empress Helena, mother of Constantine, the first Christian Emperor, travelled to the Holy Land in 326 –28 AD, founding churches and establishing relief agencies for the poor.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Historians Gelasius of Caesarea and Rufinus claimed that she discovered the hiding place of three crosses that were believed to be used at the crucifixion of Jesus and of two thieves, St. Dismas and Gestas, executed with him, and that a miracle revealed which of the three was the True Cross.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the Cross were also found the 'Holy Nails', which Helena took with her back to Constantinople.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As far as is known, Pitt's painting no longer exists.</span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It seems that it was destroyed when the Holy Cross School was demolished in 2011.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Searches on the internet indicate that no photos of the painting have placed on any website - and so there appears to be only a dim memory of the painting itself.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">That might be just as well.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The painting had practically no artistic merit.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was drab and dreary, and the content of the image only revealed itself after very close inspection.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pitt himself, it appears, was not a particularly exciting or imaginative artist, but he was competent enough to produce a good likeness - which in this case was unfortunate.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">St Helena - who is easily identified in the painting, has the face of Eileen Teahan - a teacher at Holy Cross at the time who was supposedly head of the Religious Studies department, despite the fact that she was not qualified in the subject.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Barry Cage and a few other members of senior staff also appeared in the scene, but pride of place was given to an individual in what appeared to be clerical robes, who could be easily identified as Bernard Wilding.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was either representing the local Bishop, of maybe even the Emperor, (although the Emperor was supposed to be in Constantinople at the time).</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so here was Wilding's 'ego fantasy' - a fantasy of power and authority - the two things that, in reality, he did not have.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The painting was, inevitably, a failure.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It did not 'brighten up' the entrance hall as it was dull and drab, and practically nobody realised what it was about.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Whether Pitt was paid for his efforts is not known, and the fact that no record of the work now seems to exist seems apposite.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But the project undoubtedly sums up the drift from reality that typified the regime that was controlling the Holy Cross School at the time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">WILDING and the ETHOS of the SCHOOL</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While Wilding rarely taught, and was rarely seen around the school ,(he tended to hibernate in either his own, huge office, or in the school secretary's office), he did regularly 'take' school assemblies.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There was, in many of these assemblies, however, an obsession with </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">sickness and death.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilding seemed to truly <i>relish</i> talking about the sick, the dying and the dead.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now it is, undoubtedly good to care and pray for the sick and the dying - that is simply Christian charity - Christian love.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One should point out, however, that it is also right and proper to care and pray for the healthy and the living, and that was something that was rarely mentioned during Holy Cross Assemblies.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: left;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ya5JFt48IS4/Us3QaP0ldmI/AAAAAAAAXts/R283Snu1WVo/s1600/une+pavane+-+edited+-+Edwin+Austin+Abbey.+-+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="198" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ya5JFt48IS4/Us3QaP0ldmI/AAAAAAAAXts/R283Snu1WVo/s1600/une+pavane+-+edited+-+Edwin+Austin+Abbey.+-+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Une Pervane - Edwin Austin Abbey</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Symptomatic was the fact that one of the few pieces of music from the great classical heritage of music to be played to the pupils of the school was 'Pavane pour une infante défunte' by the great French composer, Maurice Ravel.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For those not <i>au fait</i> with French the title means - loosely translated - 'Pavane (slow processional dance) </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">for a Dead (Spanish) Princess', and for a prolonged period this was played <i>every</i> morning at assembly.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The head of English believed it would '<i>quieten</i>' the children, and presumably she had Wilding's approval for this (extremely) odd custom.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now it may be a beautiful piece of music, but it is slow, <i>excessively </i>mournful, and not exactly the best way to start the day for young people.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-KyjhaP0z6YY/Us3S2cjq2dI/AAAAAAAAXt4/8EDrJBSnpYY/s1600/Temptations+of+St+Anthony+-+Giovanni+Battista+Tiepolo+-+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="178" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-KyjhaP0z6YY/Us3S2cjq2dI/AAAAAAAAXt4/8EDrJBSnpYY/s1600/Temptations+of+St+Anthony+-+Giovanni+Battista+Tiepolo+-+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Temptations of St Anthony<br />
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But then Thanet is the 'Isle of the Dead' (see below), and death seems to be the unifying theme, threading its way through so much of what happened at Holy Cross.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is, of course, a tradition in the Catholic Church of asceticism, which is generally held to have begun with </span><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Ἀββᾶς Ἀντώνιος (St </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anthony the Great), who moved to the Egyptian desert in around 270 AD, and became known as both the father and founder of desert monasticism.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Asceticism in the Church, however, has tended to drift in and out of favour through the centuries.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span></div>
<div>
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Asceticism - (from the Greek: ἄσκησις áskēsis, "exercise" or "training") describes a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from various worldly pleasures, often with the aim of pursuing religious and spiritual goals. Christian Desert Fathers included practices that involved restraint with respect to actions of body, speech, and mind. The founders and earliest practitioners of a</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">sceticism </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">lived extremely austere lifestyles, refraining from sensual pleasures and the accumulation of material wealth. They practised asceticism as an aid in the pursuit of metaphysical health.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the nineteenth century asceticism was encouraged by the writings of certain Catholic saints, for example Marie Bernarde Soubirous - usually refferred to as <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/queen-of-heaven-catholic-marian-doctrine.html" target="_blank">St Bernadette of Lourdes</a>, and</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> St Thérèse of Lisieux.</span></div>
<div>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ez4yyjL9hJo/Us89PS0sDwI/AAAAAAAAXxM/fGdocvfX0q4/s1600/St+Bernadette+of+Lourdes+-++Bernard+Wilding+-+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford+.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="150" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ez4yyjL9hJo/Us89PS0sDwI/AAAAAAAAXxM/fGdocvfX0q4/s1600/St+Bernadette+of+Lourdes+-++Bernard+Wilding+-+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Peter+Crawford+.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/queen-of-heaven-catholic-marian-doctrine.html" target="_blank">St Bernadette of Lourdes</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bernadette Soubirous is best known for her participation in the Marian apparitions of "<i>a small young lady"</i> who asked for a chapel to be built at a cave-grotto in Massabielle, where apparitions are said to have occurred between 11 February and 16 July 1858.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She would later receive recognition when the lady who appeared to her identified herself as the Immaculate Conception ('<i><a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/queen-of-heaven-catholic-marian-doctrine.html" target="_blank">que soy era immaculada concepciou</a>'</i>)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 8 December 1933, she was canonized by Pope Pius XI as a Saint of the Roman Catholic Church; her Feast Day is observed on 16 April.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">que soy era immaculada concepciou</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bernadette joined the Sisters of Charity of Nevers as Sister Marie Bernard at their mother house at Nevers, at the age of 22.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She spent the rest of her brief life there, working as an assistant in the infirmary and later as a sacristan, creating beautiful embroidery for altar cloths and vestments.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She later contracted tuberculosis of the bone in her right knee.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sister Marie Bernard became disabled from 1877 until her death. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She professed Perpetual Vows on September 22nd, 1878, during a period when she was feeling better, but her good health, however, did not last long, and the following December 11th, she returned to the infirmary to never leave it.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She suffered very much physically.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Being in bed created wounds all over her back, and her tuberculosis ridden leg burst.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She developed abbesses in her ears, making her completely deaf for some time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She wrote in detail about her illness, an example of which is :</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>"Oh Jesus and Mary, let my entire consolation in this world be to love you and to <b>suffer for sinners</b>."</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She eventually died of her long-term illness at the age of 35 on 16 April 1879.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Saint Thérèse of Lisieux (January 2, 1873 – September 30, 1897), was a French Discalced Carmelite nun.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Saint Thérèse of the Child Jesus</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She is popularly known as "<i>The Little Flower of Jesus</i>".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She is well known from 'The Story of a Soul', a collection of her autobiographical manuscripts, printed and distributed a year after her death.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The essence of her approach to the spiritual life may be found in her statement :</span><br />
<i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></i><i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">"I will seek out a means of getting to Heaven by a little way - very short and very straight, a little way that is wholly new."</i><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, this is offset by her </span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">presumptuous</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> statement :</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>"I will spend my heaven doing good upon the earth. I will let fall a shower of roses".</i></span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">'Presumption means that we do not live in hope, we live in a sense of </span><i style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">false certitude</i><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. Presumption is the vice whereby we </span><i style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">expect</i><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> to gain eternal life.'</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When St Thérèse realised that she had tuberculosis she wrote the following:</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">"The Little Flower of Jesus"</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">The Basilica at Lisieux</td></tr>
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<i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"></i><i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">'I thought immediately of the joyful thing that I had to learn, so I went over to the window. I was able to see that I was not mistaken. </i><span style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">(she had coughed up blood)</span><i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. Ah ! my soul was filled with a great consolation; I was interiorly persuaded that Jesus, on the anniversary of His own death, wanted to have me hear His first call !'</i><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As the fatal disease slowly progressed St Thérèse recorded </span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">every </i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">twist and turn of the disease's progress in the most</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> appalling</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> and mawkish detail.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On her death-bed she said:</span><br />
<i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></i><i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">"I have reached the point of not being able to suffer any more, because <b>all suffering is sweet to me</b>."</i><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This, however, was</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> not</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> asceticism, as practised by the early Fathers of the Church, but rather a perverse, almost masochistic form of exhibitionism.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Both St Bernadette and St Thérèse's response to illness was based on the concept of '</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">sharing in Christ's sufferings</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">', which if not properly understood, had a<i> possible</i> tendency to put the sufferer on a par with the Saviour and Redeemer himself - rather in the sense of '<i>co-redemptrix</i>' or '<i>co-redemtor</i>'.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"> Our Lady of Fatima<br />
Peter Crawford<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This misguided understanding was, <i>unintentionally </i>encouraged by the example of <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/queen-of-heaven-catholic-marian-doctrine.html">Fatima</a>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The children of Fatima - three young shepherds - received a vision of an angel, who identified himself as the 'Angel of Peace', and he gave a long and complex message, part of which contained the words :</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<i><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">'Make of everything you can a sacrifice and offer it to God as an act of reparation for the sins by which He is offended, and in supplication for the conversion of sinners .....'</span></i><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The concept of 'sacrifice', most clearly expressed in the 'Epistle to the Hebrews', in the New Testament, was forcefully encouraged by this vision.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Later, a Lady, who is now known as 'Our Lady of Fatima' appeared to the three children.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Included in her message were the following words :</span><br />
<i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;"><br /></i><i style="font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">Are you willing to offer yourselves to God and bear all the sufferings He wills to send you, as an act of reparation for the conversion of sinners ? Sacrifice yourselves for sinners ! .....'</i><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><i></i></span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Jacinta Marto </td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Francisco Marto </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Francisco, the youngest of the children, contracted influenza in 1918, and declined hospital treatment, and a day later, on April 4th he died peacefully at home.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Jacinta contracted influenza around the same time, and developed purulent pleurisy and endured an operation in which two of her ribs were removed.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Because of the condition of her heart, she could not be anaesthetized and suffered terrible pain, which she said would '<i>help to convert many sinners'</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On February 20th, 1920, Jacinta </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">died, as she had often said she would, alone.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The suffering and death of these two young Saints (as they later became), was seen by many in the Catholic community as suitable <i>'sacrifices for the conversion of sinners</i>'.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">'sharing in Christ's sufferings'<br />
'Christ on the Cross'<br />
Eric Gill</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now the theology of this particular subject is very complex, and this is not the place to go into it detail.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is sufficient to say that suffering and illness, 'per se', is not more admirable, in moral terms, than health and wellness, and it is how such conditions are related to an individual's spiritual formation that is relevant.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately, Wilding seemed to be of the opinion that illness was itself more laudable than wellness.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To put it in everyday language he was a '<i>sucker'</i> for a '<i>hard luck story</i>', particularly if that 'story' involved a sick individual.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In fact, Wilding was such a 'sucker', that on one occasion he had the pupils and parents donating, what eventually became a sizeable sum money, to a non-existent, starving village.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, it was not just Wilding being 'duped' and then, in turn, <i>presumably innocently</i>, 'duping' the pupils and parents, - it was more serious than that.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The German philosopher Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche, who wrote, among other things, 'Der Antichrist' (</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Antichrist), based his condemnation of Christianity on the view that a meaningful philosophy of life should be </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"<i>life-affirming</i>", and that one should question any doctrine that drained one's expansive energies, however socially prevalent those ideas might be.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philologist, philosopher, cultural critic, poet and composer. He wrote several critical texts on religion, morality, contemporary culture, philosophy and science, displaying a fondness for metaphor, irony and aphorism.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: left;">Nietzsche conceived of a '</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: left;">master morality</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: left;">' and a '</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: left;">slave morality</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: left;">', taking his categories from the sociology of the Ancient World, and in particular Ancient Greece.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nietzsche presents this "<i>master morality</i>" as the <i>original</i> system of morality - perhaps best associated with Homeric Greece.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To be "<i>morally good</i>" was to be happy, and to have the things related to happiness: wealth, strength, health, etc.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To be "morally <i>bad</i>" was to be poor, weak, sick, pathetic - an object of pity or disgust rather than hatred.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And in Nietzsche's thinking the</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> '</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">master morality</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">' was equated with non-Christian paganism, and the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'<i>slave morality</i>' was equated with Christianity.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">(see 'Jenseits von Gut und Böse: Vorspiel einer Philosophie der Zukunft' 1886 and Zur Genealogie der Moral: Eine Streitschrift 1887).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Because there was a certain element of truth in propositions described in the two books quoted above, along with 'Die fröhliche Wissenschaft' (1882–1887) and 'Also sprach Zarathustra' (1883–1885), Nietzsche was able to wreak enormous damage on the ligitimacy of Christian, and in particular, Catholic moral and ethical teaching - and this damage has continued to the present day.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But back to Holy Cross.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately, listening to one of Wilding's assemblies, and also some of his staff-room monologues, one would consider Nietzsche's analysis of Christian morality to be correct.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It did seem, according to Wilding, that to be '<i>poor, weak, sick, pathetic - an object of pity or disgust' </i>was morally laudable, and that a person so afflicted (or in Wilding's terms - blest) would be closer to God, and participating more fully in the 'economy of slavation'.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The 'Economy of Salvation' is that part of divine revelation that deals with God’s creation and management of the world, particularly His plan for salvation accomplished through the Church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;">John Darby</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">John Darby was Thanet born and bred.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Chatham House School - Ramsgate</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He came from a staunchly Roman catholic family, but strangely was educated a the prestigious, non-Catholic Chatham House Grammar School, where he was remembered as good at sport, but not much else.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Chatham House was also the 'alma mater' of the infamouse Edward Heath (1926-1935)</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now, with so many rumours circulating about what Heath got up to on 'Morning Cloud', and with Jimmy Saville, the school is probably trying to downplay the association.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">John Darby did, however, manage to acquire sufficient examination successes to enable him to train as a teacher.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Edward Heath</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Interestingly, Darby returned to Chatham House (a non-Catholic School) to teach - a fine example of the 'old boy' made good.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When he eventually came to Holy Cross he was given the elevated position as head of the Maths Department, although, still being a sporty type, he also taught physical education.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darby was a large man (more fat than muscle, however) but his imposing bulk and forceful character gave him a reputation as a strict disciplinarian.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was a good teacher, but his lack of 'sharpness' in intellectual matters proved somewhat of a disadvantage, and while he was relatively good with young people he did have a problem with 'reading' adults.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To quote the famous saying about teachers - he was '<i>a man among children, and a child among men</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His fatal flaw was that he was unable to comprehend that simple fact, and always imagined that he was able to '<i>outsmart</i>' his colleagues, when in most cases they found it too irksome or embarrassing to object to his schemes, plans and proposals.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was unfortunate in that he lost his wife to cancer - and she was a woman in the prime of life.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bernard Wilding, who lost his son, Stephen, never got over his loss, and became an empty husk of a man thereafter.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">John Darby, however, after his wife's death, was married again after a few months, and couldn't understand why many of his 'colleagues' found that disturbing at the least, or even '<i>sinister'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilding, on the surface, declared the new marriage delightful, but then Wilding was almost all '<i>surface</i>', and who knows what he really thought.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darby was obsessed with computers, and ran lessons entitled 'Computer Studies' - thinking that this would prepare his pupils for the future - and he really thought that 'Computer Studies', apart from maths, was the most important subject taught in the school.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">ZX Spectrum</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Little did he imagine that in the 21st century even children would have computers in their pockets - things called '<i>smart-phones</i>' - and nobody would need to study them, or know how to '<i>programm</i>e' them, or know '<i>computer language</i>', or have any understanding of how they worked, as they would be designed to be wholly <i>intuitive</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">, - and one wonders how many hours were wasted on those lessons designed to enable pupils to operate ZX Spectrum or a Commodore 64.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The ZX Spectrum is an 8-bit personal home computer released in the United Kingdom in 1982 by Sinclair Research Ltd. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The machine was launched as the ZX Spectrum by Sinclair to highlight the machine's colour display, compared with the black-and-white of its predecessor, the ZX81. The Spectrum was ultimately released as eight different models, ranging from the entry level model with 16 kB RAM released in 1982 to the ZX Spectrum +3 with 128 kB RAM and built in floppy disk drive in 1987.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In 1982, Commodore introduced the Commodore 64 as the successor to the VIC-20. Thanks to a well-designed set of chips designed by MOS Technology, the Commodore 64, (also referred to as C64), possessed remarkable sound and graphics for its time, </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From the point of view of the present, what is odd about this computer obsessed man is his lack of 'presence' on the Internet - and repeated searches have failed to find<i> any</i> mention or image of the man - anywhere.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This, however, does not just apply to John Darby, but to most of the major characters in this saga of Roman Catholic Education.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">John Darby's other obsession was skiing, so he cleverly arranged for a school sponsored trip to the skiing slopes, for the <i>chosen few</i>, every year.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This, of course, made him immensely <i>popular</i> with the pupils, and not a few of the staff, (including Barry Cage and Jill Simms (later Mrs Cage).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It also helped his discipline, as only '<i>well behaved</i>' pupils (by John Darby's standards) were permitted to go on these trips.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It should be remembered, however, that most of the pupils attending Holy Cross came from working class, and in many cases, impoverished backgrounds.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While it was undoubtedly a '<i>good thing</i>' to give them a holiday on the snow covered slopes, it was in many ways culturally and socially inappropriate.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many of them would not be able to afford such a privileged holiday in the future and, in fact, many members of the school staff found such a holiday beyond their financial means.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But Darby needed the slopes once a year, and what better way to enjoy this that to take the pupils - have a holiday, improve his discipline, and improve his popularity.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darby always carried round the school a metal briefcase, and on one side of the briefcase was a stuck a huge skiing logo, so that the allure and glamour of the slopes was presented to the pupils at all times - great advertising by anybody's standards.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But then Darby, while he was not intellectually smart - was 'street smart', like many of his pupils.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darby had one more trick up his sleeve - the Wednesday Club.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This operated very much like the Ski Trip.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was basically a reward for good behaviour.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'good kids' were allowed to return to the school gym in the evening and use various items of sports equipment and play records.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The evening always ended up with a game of indoor hockey.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Tony MacDonald</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eventually a Deputy headmaster was found for Bernard Wilding.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Tony MacDonald (or is it McDonald) was a bluff northerner, (</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">and that's a r</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">eal understatement), </i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">with a strong Yorkshire accent, and an inordinate liking for beer.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was almost certainly an alcoholic - but what is technically known as a 'functioning alcoholic'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When comparing him to Bernard Wilding the phrase '<i>chalk and cheese</i>' instantly comes to mind.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilding was, in most cases, 'bad' by default - he simply failed to do the right thing, out of cowardice, stupidity or laziness</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">'in the world, sin is omnipresent to the degree that the vigilant struggle to avoid sinful conduct is doomed to failure, - and Wilding's 'distance' and lack of positive action mirrored this theme in Graham Greene's books.'</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Gilbert Jones<br />
fay and effeminate</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald was just 'bad' - in fact he was a sadist - although probably not in the sexual sense.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He just enjoyed seeing pain, physical or mental, in others..</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He openly admitted to a member of staff that he '<i>liked to see women cry</i>' - and yet the Abbot, the fay and effeminate Gilbert Jones, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">and the Board of Governors thought him fit and suitable to act as a Deputy headmaster of a Catholic School.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But that is to misrepresent matters - in fact he was, in all but name, the headmaster, as Wilding faded discreetly</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> into his office, to be brought out only for assemblies</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> and 'staff meetings'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald was an old style catholic, and he wished to impose his view of how to teach religion on the staff of the RE Department (led by Sister Alice) - such as it was.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His solution to the vexed question of how to teach religion to adolescents was to go back to the Rosary. </span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The rosary (Latin rosarium, meaning "Crown of Roses") is a Roman Catholic sacramental and <i>Marian</i> devotion to prayer and the commemoration of Jesus and events of his life. The term "Rosary" is used to describe both a sequence of prayers and a string of prayer beads used to count the prayers. The rosary was given to Saint Dominic in an apparition by the Virgin Mary in the year 1214 The traditional fifteen Mysteries of the Rosary were instituted by Pope Pius V in the 16th century. The mysteries are grouped into three sets: the Joyful mysteries, the Sorrowful mysteries, and the Glorious mysteries. In 2002 Pope John Paul II announced a set of five new optional mysteries called the Luminous mysteries, bringing the total number of mysteries to twenty.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now in this MacDonald was not entirely wrong.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is much to be learned about faith and doctrine from a study of the rosary, but as a form of catechesis there are few authorities who would suggest such an approach as being apposite for the youth of today.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald did attempt to teach some religious education lessons on this basis, but as was expected he was far from successful.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To the pupils MacDonald was known as 'Meathead' - and it is remarkable how aptly young people find names for their elders.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Tony MacDonald - Corporal Punishment</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They <i>feared</i> him, mainly because he introduced the cane to Holy Cross - a form of punishment that Bernard Wilding was resolutely against - but Wilding was powerless to control his sadistic deputy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Corporal punishment, of course, is now illegal in school, but this does not necessarily mean that such punishment is wrong.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For thousands of years it has been believed that, as a last resort, young people should be physically punished, and the wisdom of the ages should not be put aside lightly.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The problem with MacDonald's use of corporal punishment was that it was not used to correct the child, but rather to satisfy the individual handing out the punishment.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But MacDonald's victims were not only the pupils.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His first victim among the staff was Bill Brears.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now Bill was supposed to be a close friend of Bernard Wilding, but Wilding did nothing (as usual) to protect Bill from MacDonald's constant complaints.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald thought that Bill was 'soft', and was not disciplining the upper age group of pupils sufficiently.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bill (who was officially Senior Master) was not 'soft', but was sensitive to criticism, and poured his heart out to a member of staff - complaining that too much pressure was being put on him, and that his work load was too heavy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Two days later he was dead from a heart attack.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At a memorial assembly, held in the Gym, MacDonald gave a peroration for the 'departed' Senior Master, in which he hypocritically described Bill as a 'true English gentleman'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It seems a pity that MacDonald couldn't learn anything from his first victim at Holy Cross.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The one thing that MacDonald was<i> not </i>was a gentleman - rather he was a thug.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Another member of staff who presented a problem for MacDonald was Jill Goodreau.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now Jill, who specialised in English, was not a Roman Catholic.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She was forward looking, quite unconventional and quite popular with many of the older pupils.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald was not at all happy about her influence over the older pupils, and it must be remembered here that MacDonald was an 'old style' Catholic, hiding under the 'sheep's clothing' of Vatican II.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So he started putting pressure on Jill - at staff meetings, in the staff-room, and by increasing her work load.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Jill caught a cold, and then it developed into 'flu - but Jill was young - about forty, and so it was '<i>no big deal</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But then she developed pneumonia, was taken into hospital - and died.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There was assembly in the gym, and another peroration, this time not so fulsome, and another member of staff had gone.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Not everybody, of course 'passed away' under pressure, but it was always possible to force people to leave.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A number of members of staff left under such pressure, including Sister Alice, who attempted to teach Religious Education, Alan Ward, who taught history, Steve Whiteman, who taught physical education, and John Darby.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald was intensely jealous of Darby's popularity with the pupils.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One way to reduce this popularity was to stop the Wednesday Club, which gave Darby so much control over the senior pupils.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darby would not budge, however.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eventually, though, when more pressure was brought to bear on Darby, he decide to leave and go to work with his brother.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Before he left, he handed over the running of the Wednesday Club to another member of staff - without revealing MacDonald's plans.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This individual was not a member of the secret cabal, however, - the '<i>Senior Staff</i>'</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And so, after a brief period, MacDonald simply changed the locks on the Gym, and the Wednesday Club was 'locked out', and was forced to disband.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There was no discussion, and no warning.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The pupils came in the evening, and the doors were locked.</span></div>
<div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And that is one of the reasons why MacDonald can be described as a 'thug' - and a vicious thug at that.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The MacDonald, having cowed everyone on the staff, including Wilding, decided to leave, and everyone drew a great sigh of relief - including Bernard Wilding.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But then there was a new problem.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Once again the school needed a new Deputy Head - and that could be a problem.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But help was at hand.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
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<div style="text-align: center;">
</div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
<div style="text-align: center;">
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: center;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;">John Darby as Deputy Head</span></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Much to everyone's surprise, John Darby came back as Deputy Headmaster.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Or was <i>everyone</i> surprised ?</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It all happened very quickly.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald was no sooner out than John Darby was in - so had it all been pre-arranged ?</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Quite possibly.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But when John Darby came back it was not the John Darby that everyone remembered.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There was the first assembly, and the staff were all waiting for Darby to lay down some strict yet fair guidelines for the pupils to follow.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Instead, in shuffled a hunched over man <i>in drag</i> !</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xJL8DxACXLw/Uss66dKNXyI/AAAAAAAAXqw/x5MnoPxJUJc/s1600/John+Darby+-+Cleaning+lady+-+Drag+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-xJL8DxACXLw/Uss66dKNXyI/AAAAAAAAXqw/x5MnoPxJUJc/s1600/John+Darby+-+Cleaning+lady+-+Drag+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="130" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Female Cleaner<br />
with Mop and Bucket</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And yes - it was John Darby pretending to be a female cleaner with a mop and bucket.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And then - leaning on his mop he proceeded, in a falsetto voice, and exaggerated cockney accent to moan about how the pupils were not looking after the school - dropping litter etc.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Everybody, including the pupils, were embarrassed.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The staff, not surprisingly, were appalled.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And what did Bernard Wilding think.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Well, once Darby had finished, he thanked his new Deputy Head, and then continued with an apparently normal assembly.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It seems that during his time away, Darby had become 'born again' - that is, infused with a religious mania - but unfortunately he had an almost total lack of understanding of doctrine or scripture.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Undoubtedly he should have stuck to his ZX Spectrum !</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Now in most schools the pupils fear being reported to the Head, or Deputy Head master.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Under Darby's new regime it was a little different, however.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was the teaching staff who feared being reported to the Deputy Head.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darby had an open door policy, and pupils would simply say, if criticised or corrected - 'I'll tell Mr Darby !'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Not surprisingly, discipline declined dramatically.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span>
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-HDL-UqJb7nM/Uss7_crQuOI/AAAAAAAAXq4/QsE9Cyuyb0o/s1600/John+Darby+-+Photocopier+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-HDL-UqJb7nM/Uss7_crQuOI/AAAAAAAAXq4/QsE9Cyuyb0o/s1600/John+Darby+-+Photocopier+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="195" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Photocopier</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And while the school began to sink into the non-academic abyss, Darby could be found moving furniture round the school - one of his favourite little hobbies.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And when a new photocopier was to be purchased, he acquired three on approval, and set them up in his office.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He then staged a '<i>race</i>' to see which machine was the fastest - and so this was how the second most senior individual in the school spent his time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Meanwhile, Wilding would be inconsequentially chatting to the school secretaries over tea and biscuits.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One problem John Darby had was when he started talking about religion when taking 'assembelies' - and probably also when taking the odd, (and yes probably 'odd'), Religious Education lesson.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He had an unfortunate tendency to find it difficult, at least in his own mind, to sort out the relationship between Jesus Christ and God the Father - not to mention the 'Holy Spirit' (</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Spiritūs Sancti</i> - in Latin - and <i>Heiligen Geist </i>in Benedict's native German - 'Geist' also having the additional meaning of 'mind').</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was probably the result of not having had a Roman Catholic secondary school education, which resulted in Darby having a very poor understanding of Christology and Trinitarian Doctrine.</span><br />
<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-L0hc-4aUzwU/UsoE0OLL_kI/AAAAAAAAXo4/TWH4xd33Jrc/s1600/christ+the+king+-+Christology+-+Ramsgate+-+John+Darby+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="196" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-L0hc-4aUzwU/UsoE0OLL_kI/AAAAAAAAXo4/TWH4xd33Jrc/s1600/christ+the+king+-+Christology+-+Ramsgate+-+John+Darby+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Christ Pantocrator<br />
<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">Παντοκράτωρ</span></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Christology - refers to the study of the human and divine natures of Jesus Christ as they coexist within one person.There are no direct discussions in the New Testament regarding the dual nature of the Person of Christ as both divine and human. Hence, since the early days of Christianity, theologians have debated various approaches to the understanding of these natures, at times resulting in schisms.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Hypostatic union (fὑπόστασις - hypóstasis) is a technical term in Christian theology employed in mainstream Christology to describe the union of Christ's humanity and divinity in one hypostasis. The First Council of Ephesus recognised this doctrine and affirmed its importance, stating that the humanity and divinity of Christ are made one according to nature and hypostasis in the Logos.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Catholic doctrine of the Trinity defines God as three divine persons or hypostases: (see above) the Father, the Son (Jesus), and the Holy Spirit; "<i>one God in three persons</i>". The three persons are distinct (three divine hypostases) -</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> yet are one "</span><i style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">substance, essence or nature</i><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">". In this context, a "nature" is <i>what</i> one is, while a "person" is <i>who</i> one is.</span></div>
<div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Rc1JRQfM-TQ/UsoCoGhv53I/AAAAAAAAXos/8YOatBlzr1k/s1600/Sacred+Congregation+for+the+Doctrine+of+the+Faith+-+Roman+Inquisition+-+John+Darby+-+Tony+Macdonald+-+Bernard+Wilding+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="216" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Rc1JRQfM-TQ/UsoCoGhv53I/AAAAAAAAXos/8YOatBlzr1k/s1600/Sacred+Congregation+for+the+Doctrine+of+the+Faith+-+Roman+Inquisition+-+John+Darby+-+Tony+Macdonald+-+Bernard+Wilding+-+Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith<br />
Roman Inquisition</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One wonders of course, considering the above, what would have happened had Darby, - and Wilding and MacDonald for that matter - been arraigned before the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sacred Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (the Roman Inquisition).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The most probable outcome would have been that, after brief questioning, they would have been handed over to the 'secular authority' for suitable punishment.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Of course, the Roman Inquisition stopped doing this a long, long time ago.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the end burning people alive came to be thought of as not very 'Christian'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, it should be remembered that Darby, MacDonald and Wilding were being paid - and very handsomely - for promoting the Roman Catholic faith in Thanet through the medium of education, and this was something that they demonstrably failed to do - and failed miserably.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In Darby's case it was undoubtedly because his grasp of the faith was tenuous</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(This is not, of course to say the he was, personally, not a good Catholic. This is something between him and his conscience.)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald seemed to have a reasonable understanding of faith and doctrine, but his overwhelming egoism and perverse manner prevented him from communicating his understanding effectively.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilding seemed to vacillate between 'happy clappy' Protestantism, and a vague Graham Greene style Catholicism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If he didn't know where<i> he </i>stood, how could anyone else take a lead from him - pupils or staff ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As time went on John Darby became increasingly paranoid - a not uncommon response to attempting to work at Holy Cross.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Strangely, he was not paranoid about the pupils.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Instead it was the staff that concerned him, and he strove to make them work increasingly hard, insisting on them staying behind <i>long</i> after the end of the school day, and in making then attend various <i>supposedly</i> educational meeting, often outside Thanet.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His paranoia also extended to affairs far beyond the School.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He had various apocalyptic fantasies, centring around social collapse and world war.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Apocalypticism is the religious belief that there will be an apocalypse, a term which originally referred to a revelation of God's will, but now usually refers to belief that the world will come to an end time very soon, even within one's own lifetime. This belief is usually accompanied by the idea that civilization will soon come to a tumultuous end due to some sort of catastrophic global event.</span><br />
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<div style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
Possibly the worst example of this was when the United States bombed Tripoli in Libya.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
Darby held a school assembly on this topic, mentioning that he had heard the American bombers leaving on their bombing raid from Manston.</div>
<div style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: justify;">
<br /></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kZx5h2_CQBo/UsoHgrXMwII/AAAAAAAAXpI/v1Vdlv31Oz4/s1600/Coat+of+Arms+of+the+Libyan+Republic+-+Art+of+heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="191" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-kZx5h2_CQBo/UsoHgrXMwII/AAAAAAAAXpI/v1Vdlv31Oz4/s1600/Coat+of+Arms+of+the+Libyan+Republic+-+Art+of+heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: small;">الجمهورية العربية الليبية</span><br />
Al-Jumhūrīyah Al-ʿArabiyyah Al-Lībiyyah<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-dYTpOd4vpuA/UsoGOIb1v6I/AAAAAAAAXpA/t16H3SJz51A/s1600/+1986+United+States+bombing+of+Libya+-+John+Darby+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="93" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-dYTpOd4vpuA/UsoGOIb1v6I/AAAAAAAAXpA/t16H3SJz51A/s1600/+1986+United+States+bombing+of+Libya+-+John+Darby+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">1986 United States Bombing of Libya,</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">RAF Manston was an RAF station in the north-east of Kent, at grid reference TR334663 on the Isle of Thanet from 1916 until 1996.</span></div>
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The 1986 United States bombing of Libya, code-named Operation El Dorado Canyon, comprised air-strikes by the United States against Libya on 15 April 1986. The attack was carried out by the U.S. Air Force, U.S. Navy and U.S. Marine Corps via air-strikes, in response to the 1986 Berlin discotheque bombing. There were reportedly 40 Libyan casualties and one US plane shot down killing two airmen.</span></div>
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"></span><br />
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">There is no evidence that Manston was actually used by the USAF.</span></div>
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hiX3IPUpOJM/UsoIlOfxcqI/AAAAAAAAXpQ/4jQjNrHaUPY/s1600/Atomic+Wars+-+1984+-+Ingsoc+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-hiX3IPUpOJM/UsoIlOfxcqI/AAAAAAAAXpQ/4jQjNrHaUPY/s1600/Atomic+Wars+-+1984+-+Ingsoc+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" width="175" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Nuclear War</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The main thrust of the assembly was that Libya might strike back at Thanet (?), and that the pupils should be prepared - and presumably pray.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Not only was it unlikely that Manston had been used for the strike on Libya, it was also ridiculous to think that Libya had the capability - or intention for that matter - to attack Thanet.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Such fantasies fed the paranoia of other members of staff, and Phil Cooper, the teacher of Sociology, ended up having a complete break down, in which he believed that there had been a nuclear war, and all the staff, including Cooper, were ghosts - simply 'going through the motions'.</span></div>
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<span style="text-align: left;"><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">to be continued</span></span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Holy Cross admission policy was mainly for children of a Roman Catholic background although the school admitted a large number of children of a non-religious or Protestant background.<br />The Holy Cross School's Art Deco (?) styled building was built near the cliff tops of Broadstairs on the East Kent coast.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ANTmKMIv_TE/Ur7EaiaFepI/AAAAAAAAWzY/-V8vAvqKznI/s1600/Interior+Holy+Cross+School+Chapel+-+Ramsgate+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ANTmKMIv_TE/Ur7EaiaFepI/AAAAAAAAWzY/-V8vAvqKznI/s200/Interior+Holy+Cross+School+Chapel+-+Ramsgate+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="145" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://wevsky.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/hereson-schoolformerly-holy-cross-rc.html" target="_blank">Holy Cross School Chapel</a></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-SksLwDeffss/Ur7C4akBn6I/AAAAAAAAWzM/yzIuifqavIY/s1600/Holy+Cross+School+Chapel+-+Ramsgate+-+Kent.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="213" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-SksLwDeffss/Ur7C4akBn6I/AAAAAAAAWzM/yzIuifqavIY/s320/Holy+Cross+School+Chapel+-+Ramsgate+-+Kent.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><a href="http://wevsky.blogspot.co.uk/2011/07/hereson-schoolformerly-holy-cross-rc.html" target="_blank">Holy Cross School Chapel</a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It consisted of a school block and had its own separate Chapel, for school mass and religious celebration.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It also had a separate hall for school assembly's, which doubled up as a gymnasium, as well as four tennis courts and two playing fields, the first of which was used for football and rugby for boys P.E. lessons, and the second of which was used for hockey and netball for girls P.E. lessons.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1990 Holy Cross decided to invested in a sixth form study centre for its pupils when the school converted an old 1930's gatehouse at the entrance of the grounds as a place to study away from the school, whilst still within school premises.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In February 1992 the school suffered a large and devastating fire which, interestingly, damaged the unoccupied top floor of the 1930's main block just above the chapel, with over 500 pupils being lead to safety.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The fire caused an estimated £100,000 worth of damage, and took a further £500,000 to repair, and although the top floor was closed off the school itself didn't close, and carried on while the building was being repaired and refurbished.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Pq3aUqCNwAg/Ur7WzxTrR3I/AAAAAAAAW0o/E6fulr5aAa8/s1600/Holy+Cross+Chapel+-+Class+Photo+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="241" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Pq3aUqCNwAg/Ur7WzxTrR3I/AAAAAAAAW0o/E6fulr5aAa8/s320/Holy+Cross+Chapel+-+Class+Photo+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Holy Cross School Uniform</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Throughout its existence as a secondary modern, the Holy Cross uniform consisted of a white shirt, blue jumper, school tie and a blue blazer with the schools emblem on the pocket.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Boys had to wear either black of grey trousers and girls wore a blue skirt.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Holy Cross school badge was a shield with a cross and three wavy lines depicting the sea, due the schools close proximity to the coast and the schools motto was, '<i>In hoc signo vinces</i>', meaning "<i>In this sign you will conquer</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the 1980's the schools dress code became less formal and more relaxed, as the level of discipline continued to decline.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 31 August 1998 the schools education standards had <i>dropped below average,</i> as had its pupil admissions, and KCC education authority stepped in and made a decision to close down Holy Cross as a Catholic school, although the school itself would carry on under a different name as an all-boys school.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This, of course, was a stern rebuff to the Catholic Church's inability to maintain appropriate educational standards.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hereson secondary school for boys was to be the new temporary tenants to Holy Cross from 1999 for over 470 pupils, when there originally school on Lillian road, became dilapidated and was demolished by property developers to make way for a row of 16 terraced houses, Hereson were tenants at Holy Cross between 1999 to 2008.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 2008 Hereson school vacated Holy Cross.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After Hereson vacated the school another use had to be found for the Holy Cross.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The building itself was considered an important architectural landmark in Broadstairs, therefore the desire to keep it was strong among the local residents with some people holding protests, but the land was far to valuable and with a shortage of cheap affordable housing in Broadstairs the school along with it grounds became a desirable prospect for housing developers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Finally the decision to use the schools surrounding land and playing fields for property development was agreed by Thanet District Council (TDC), with the demolition of the 1930's building in 2011, bringing to an end nearly 70 years for Holy Cross.</span><br />
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<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: x-large;">Holy Cross School</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="color: #93c47d; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;"><i>A Cursed Enterprise ?</i></span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Was Holy Cross 'cursed' in some mysterious way, or was its '<i>decline and fall'</i> just a inevitable result of the '<i>decline and fall</i>' of the Roman Catholic community in Thanet ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">We have already noted the reports of 'The Grange' - seat of the Lord Abbot of Ramsgate, having "<i>an effect that can drag you down. There is a negative energy there that is tangible. Something is very wrong there - that place is alive with something awful</i>."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It has been speculated that this could be due to some kind of occult presence.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So was there an occult presence at the Holy Cross school also ?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And what of the name of the whole area - Thanet ?</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-omxIHComyZs/Ur9GCi2Ln7I/AAAAAAAAW2U/Yj4HrPP_Y4w/s1600/Thanatos+2+-+Greek+God+of+Death+-+Thanet+-+Kent.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-omxIHComyZs/Ur9GCi2Ln7I/AAAAAAAAW2U/Yj4HrPP_Y4w/s200/Thanatos+2+-+Greek+God+of+Death+-+Thanet+-+Kent.png" width="148" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Θάνατος - Thanatos<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Vittorio Carvelli 2012</b></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">Θάνατος - i</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">n Greek mythology, Thanatos (Death from θνῄσκω - thnēskō, "to die, be dying") was the daemon (spirit) personification of death. He was a minor figure in Greek mythology, often referred to but rarely appearing in person. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">His name is transliterated in Latin as Thanatus, but his equivalent in Roman mythology is Mors. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; text-align: left;">He was always portrayed as a beautiful ephebe -(f</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">rom the Greek ephebos ἔφηβος - anglicised as ephebe - is the term for an adolescent male).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The name is Greek - although it was introduced by the Romans.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">So the Isle of Thanet is the 'Isle of the Dead' or the 'Isle of Death'.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Holy Cross was originally a </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">residential 'open air' school for sick and delicate children - children who were undoubtedly unhappy, and probably often in pain.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And how many of those poor, sick children died within the walls of the establishment - and did there suffering and deaths somehow pervade the very structure of that windswept edifice ?</span></div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-OQL596XcH4s/Ur7Wi7KIwtI/AAAAAAAAW0k/zP_MMrA8khE/s1600/Holy+Cross+-+as+originally+built+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="199" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-OQL596XcH4s/Ur7Wi7KIwtI/AAAAAAAAW0k/zP_MMrA8khE/s1600/Holy+Cross+-+as+originally+built+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Holy Cross School - Broadstairs</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The top floor consisted of dormitories, and the lower floors were wards/classrooms with large windows that could be slid open to allow the supposedly health giving air to blow in from the English Channel.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The odd-looking hexagonal protrusion (see photo) was known as the Solarium.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This also had large windows that could be opened to allow in the sun's rays.</span></div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-wXFiVRFU_PQ/Ur9rGbTrzkI/AAAAAAAAW5I/Gpvf86B7a6I/s1600/ghost-nun+-+Holy+Cross+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-wXFiVRFU_PQ/Ur9rGbTrzkI/AAAAAAAAW5I/Gpvf86B7a6I/s200/ghost-nun+-+Holy+Cross+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="176" /></a></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When the nuns left, and the building became a Catholic School, it was constantly rumoured that the top floor of the building was haunted.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Strangely enough the top floor was never used, and was out of bounds to pupils.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The head of the English Department (Mike Courtenay - who was believed by the pupils to be 'gay', and then shocked them all by marrying and leaving for the States) reported that one night, when in the playground, he had seen a nun on the top floor silently ringing a hand bell from one of the windows - and he was a reliable senior member of staff (and a good catholic) who was not inclined to lie.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Was the school haunted ? - Well if atmosphere of the building was anything to go by it was <i>exceptionally</i> creepy, and the only person who seemed to be at home in this 'creepyness' was the equally creepy headmaster (see above).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And apart from ghostly nuns, it is also rumoured that the site contains an Anglo Saxon burial ground.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-6BdBXGt8OvE/UsL4MnE5cvI/AAAAAAAAXHg/SQZz70jhMgo/s1600/Front+Elevation+-++Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-6BdBXGt8OvE/UsL4MnE5cvI/AAAAAAAAXHg/SQZz70jhMgo/s400/Front+Elevation+-++Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" width="400" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Holy Cross School - Broadstairs</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But it was not just 'ghost stories' - or a 'creepy feeling' that caused many to wonder what was really going on in that cold, gaunt building.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was something far more tangible.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was sickness, addiction, lechery, neurosis and in the end death that stalked those echoing corridors.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A number of staff members suffered neurotic and, in some cases, psychotic breakdowns.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Other began to behave in ways which were completely out of character - embarking on inappropriate personal and sexual relationships.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And then there was the Art teacher's alcoholism, and his eventual death.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The death of two members of the English department - young women; healthy and in their prime, suddenly struck down.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The sudden death of the Senior Master - Bill Brears.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The death of the school secretary's husband.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The lingering and painful death of the wife of the head of the Maths Department (who also worked at the school teaching physical education) - another young woman (Mrs Darby) - in her prime - and struck down.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And even the deaths of mothers of children who attended the school, (Mrs Goodfellow and Mrs Kemp)</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The death of the father of the teacher of Religious Education.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And, of course, the death of the headmaster's son, Steven, in a stupid and pointless accident.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And all in the space of a few years.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For many it was surely a '<i>cursed enterprise</i>'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And some would think it was a 'curse', some supernatural power feeding of those who were sufficiently unwise to become associated with the building, but others would blame the mayhem among the staff on the incompetence of the Headmaster, Bernard Wilding, which permitted the violent and dictatorial managerial styles of the two Deputy Headmaster during this period - MacDonald and Darby - suggesting that many were simply hounded into a premature grave, or a mental breakdown, or forced to leave by those two obsessively driven individuals.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But then what was driving them ?</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One answer to that question has already bee answered by the pathetic story of the boy who was abused by Father Alexander Bede Walsh (who was sentenced to 22 years in prison in March 2012 for serious paedophile offences against boys).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Walsh used religion to control his young victims, telling one boy the abuse was '<i>the hand of God touching him</i>'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Undoubtedly some of the individuals involved in this equally pathetic story felt that they had been touched by 'the hand of God'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This is undoubtedly true of Wilding (announcing, blasphemously, in assembly the sainthood of his dead son Stephen), and Darby with his constant harping on about his religious and moral certainties.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, in all three there is an egoism, and a sadism, that is totally in opposition to the gentle Christian ideals that they claimed to be upholding, and which they were paid (and paid well) to uphold.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It goes without saying, of course, that anyone who considers that they are acting as the 'hand of God' is very dangerous - and here we are not just referring to paedophile priests.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Equally, 'tin-pot' little headmasters, and their deputies are not particularly dangerous, despite the fact that they may ruin careers, drive certain individuals to break-down, and even fatal illness, and more importantly ruin the education of large numbers of young people.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But one wonders what these individuals may have done had they not been 'tin-pot' characters responsible for a neglected little school.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">We know that, given the power, the religiously minded (or obsessed) - Popes calling for Crusades, Sheiks calling for Jihad (bin Laden and his kind), Witch-Finder Generals, and even our beloved Cromwell (who banned Christmas and was responsible for regicide) will go to the most appalling extremes to further their '<i>religious faith</i>'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And of course, we are reminded of the Supreme Sacred Congregation of the Roman and Universal Inquisition (also known as the 'Santo Oficio' - Holy Office) - which tortured and was indirectly responsible for the deaths of countless thousands of people.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(Unfortunately, any mention of the Inquisition will bring images of 'Monty Python' and the 'soft cushions' - but try to put such images out of your mind - after all, we <i>are</i> trying to be serious.)</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Founded by Pope Paul III in 1542, the congregation's sole objective is to "spread sound Catholic doctrine and defend those points of Christian tradition which seem in danger". Its offices are head-quartered at the Palace of the Holy Office, just outside Vatican City. The congregation employs an advisory board including cardinals, bishops, priests, lay theologians, and canon lawyers. Recently headed by Joseph Ratzinger (the future <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/pope-benedict-xvi-flawed-pontiff.html" target="_blank">Pope Benedict XVI</a>), t</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">he current Prefect is Archbishop Gerhard Ludwig Müller.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And as you can see from the information above, it still exists - unable to torture people (at least physically) at the present time - but</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> always</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> ready to do the bidding of the Pope.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And talking of the Pope, here's a nice piece of gossip :</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dAB-sKoHv6I/UsM19GntmhI/AAAAAAAAXK0/HqObdy4P7cQ/s1600/Georg+Gaenswein+-++Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="141" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-dAB-sKoHv6I/UsM19GntmhI/AAAAAAAAXK0/HqObdy4P7cQ/s200/Georg+Gaenswein+-++Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.jpg" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Monsignor Georg Gänswein<br />
'Bel Giorgio' - 'Gorgeous George'</td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2SKXbuYTnTc/UsM0NGZs4gI/AAAAAAAAXKo/iFrg642jYG4/s1600/Georg+Gaenswein+-+Benedict+-++Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="143" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-2SKXbuYTnTc/UsM0NGZs4gI/AAAAAAAAXKo/iFrg642jYG4/s200/Georg+Gaenswein+-+Benedict+-++Roman+catholic+Education+-+Holy+Cross+School+-+Ramsgate+-+Thanet.png" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">A really 'creepy' photo</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Ex-Pope <a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2014/01/pope-benedict-xvi-flawed-pontiff.html" target="_blank">Benedict</a>’s trusted secretary, Monsignor Georg Gänswein, will be serving both pontiffs - living with Benedict at the monastery inside the Vatican, and keeping his day job as prefect of the new pope’s household. So Benedict’s handsome male companion will continue to live with him, while working for the other Pope during the day. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Georg Gänswein (born 30 July 1956) is a German Archbishop of the Catholic Church, Chaplain of His Holiness, Prefect of the Papal Household and the personal secretary of the pope-emeritus, <a href="http://benedict.xvi/">Benedict.XVI</a>. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Gänswein's nickname is '<i>Bel Giorgio</i>' (English: Gorgeous George).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But returning to our three 'villains' at Holy Cross - if they had <i>real</i> power, what might they have done ?</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One shudders to think.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">John Darby would openly fantasize to staff members about having the pupils for 24 hours a day (a bit like on the ski trip), and what he would then be able achieve - so there was a real lust for <i>total </i>control and power.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">And they were, each in their own way, capable of having their own little '<i>inquisitions</i>' - not with regard to the pupils, however, but with the teaching staff.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Interestingly, if Wilding, (the supposed arch-pacifist), didn't get the answers he was looking for, he would bring a 12" ruler down sharply on his desk - which is just a step away from <i>physical violence</i> - and this is with regard to a member of the teaching staff.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">MacDonald, of course, didn't have to resort to such displays - his mere <i>presence</i> was sufficiently <i>threatening</i>, and he was quite able to bring female members of staff to the point of tears.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">John Darby was more careful, and he would simply '<i>talk his victims to death</i>' - going on endlessly until they agreed with him, although there would always be the occasional veiled threat.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It should be remembered that any organisation is open to abuse, but an organisation that obtains its power from the ultimate source - God - is open to the greatest abuse.</span><br />
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<tr><td><a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank"><img height="188" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Np2LhHPlFak/UIpi2KJKL0I/AAAAAAAAKgM/ai-5ImZ993s/s200/Coat+of+Arms+of+the+Holy+See+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px;"><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</a></b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is here that one should remember the words:</span><br />
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<a href="http://englishcatholicchurch.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-primacy-of-st-peter.html" target="_blank"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">TU ES PETRVS ET SUPER HANC PETRAM AEDIFICABO ECCLESIAM MEAM. TIBI DABO CLAVES REGNI CAELORUM</span></a></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(You are Peter, and on this rock I will build my church. ... I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven.)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Vulgate, Matthew 16:18–19.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to be continued</span></div>
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<span style="color: #93c47d; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">'<i>Something is very wrong there - that place is alive with something awful.</i>'</span><br />
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.<a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" imageanchor="1"><img border="0" height="82" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Eh6SRsy_dM/UssypfVf1VI/AAAAAAAAXqY/WNzSF6BvPCc/s1600/divider+-+scroll+-+Holy+Cross+-+Thanet+-+Kent+-+Roman+Catholic+Education.png" width="640" /></a><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-JRdxxstwW9U/Uq4rfwtx13I/AAAAAAAAVkw/88aqswuNz1w/s1600/Martin+Travers+-++Logo+-+Old+St+Pancras+church,+London.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-JRdxxstwW9U/Uq4rfwtx13I/AAAAAAAAVkw/88aqswuNz1w/s1600/Martin+Travers+-++Logo+-+Old+St+Pancras+church,+London.png" height="320" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"><b>© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"><b>based on a design by Martin Travers</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: x-small;"><b>click on images and open in a new tab to view images full size</b></span></td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WDyU-67s_cw/Uq4w1H_P0PI/AAAAAAAAVlM/Gkh19fe-eVo/s1600/Anglo-Catholicism+-+Art,+Literature,+Politics+and+Theology+-+Text.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WDyU-67s_cw/Uq4w1H_P0PI/AAAAAAAAVlM/Gkh19fe-eVo/s1600/Anglo-Catholicism+-+Art,+Literature,+Politics+and+Theology+-+Text.png" height="46" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Catholicism is a uniquely 'English' phenomena.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Its very name betrays that it is a movement within the Church of England.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-DCDEj5SvsSc/UrCqBzRneaI/AAAAAAAAVwk/oNZB1OTa-oU/s1600/Anglo+Catholic+divider+copy.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-DCDEj5SvsSc/UrCqBzRneaI/AAAAAAAAVwk/oNZB1OTa-oU/s640/Anglo+Catholic+divider+copy.png" height="46" width="640" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The establishment of 'national Churches' in Europe during the 15th century was primarily the result of the rise of <i>political nationalism</i>, and such a development was inevitably in opposition to the <i>trans-national</i> ambitions of the Holy See.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Tudor Reformation</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-YHCdIj_Yex8/Uq9LulwJnQI/AAAAAAAAVpQ/iPUxjipXNFg/s1600/Coat+of+Arms+of+Henry+VIII+of+England+(1509-1547)+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-YHCdIj_Yex8/Uq9LulwJnQI/AAAAAAAAVpQ/iPUxjipXNFg/s200/Coat+of+Arms+of+Henry+VIII+of+England+(1509-1547)+-+Art+of+Heraldry+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://artofheraldry.blogspot.co.uk/2011/08/british-heraldry.html" target="_blank">Royal Arms of King Henry VIII</a><br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-NloHAcvLzqc/Uq9LcUdALhI/AAAAAAAAVpI/eYRHgr20M6g/s1600/King+Henry+VIII+-+Romann+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-NloHAcvLzqc/Uq9LcUdALhI/AAAAAAAAVpI/eYRHgr20M6g/s1600/King+Henry+VIII+-+Romann+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="320" width="186" /></a></div>
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King Henry VIII of England</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the kingdom of England, the Church <i>of</i> England (not to be confused with the Church <i>in</i> England) became independent, and was established by law in November 1534 by </span><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/spirit-of-england-england-and-catholic.html" style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;" target="_blank">King Henry VIII</a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For Henry, the establishment of the independence of the 'Ecclesia Anglicana' was not a matter of theology, but rather of <i>authority, </i>and it was <i>not</i> his intention to create a theologically Protestant Church<i> - </i>and this is significant when considering the subsequent development of Anglo-Catholicism.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Act granted King Henry VIII of England 'Royal Supremacy', which means that he was declared the S<i>upreme Head of the Church of England</i>, and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is still the legal authority of the Sovereign of the United Kingdom.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Royal Supremacy</i> is specifically used to describe the <i>legal sovereignty</i> of the civil laws over the laws of the Church in England.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eotpP9aVaRk/UrHZSPbtm4I/AAAAAAAAV3Y/VgkmBRh5A_U/s1600/Ecclesia+Anglia+2+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford+copy.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-eotpP9aVaRk/UrHZSPbtm4I/AAAAAAAAV3Y/VgkmBRh5A_U/s200/Ecclesia+Anglia+2+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford+copy.png" height="200" width="124" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ecclesia Anglia<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Act declared the monarch to be "<i>the only supreme head on earth of the Church of England</i>" and that the English crown shall enjoy "<i>all honours, dignities, preeminences, jurisdictions, privileges, authorities, immunities, profits, and commodities to the said dignity</i>."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The wording of the Act made clear that Parliament was <i>not </i>granting the King the title (thereby suggesting that they had the right to withdraw it later); rather, it was acknowledging an <i>established fact</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the 'Act of Supremacy', Henry <i>abandoned Rome</i> completely.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He thereby asserted the <i>independence</i> of the 'Ecclesia Anglicana' (English Church), and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> appointed himself, and his successors as the supreme rulers of the English church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As part of the Church Settlement of <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/spirit-of-england-england-and-catholic.html" target="_blank">Henry VIII</a> the 'Act of the Six Articles' was passed which reaffirmed traditional Catholic doctrine regarding:</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-moO7azysDf8/UrGegtZGYiI/AAAAAAAAV1s/r00XCAP2IDg/s1600/transubstantiation+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-moO7azysDf8/UrGegtZGYiI/AAAAAAAAV1s/r00XCAP2IDg/s200/transubstantiation+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="100" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1 transubstantiation, 2 the reasonableness of withholding of the cup from the laity during communion, 3 clerical celibacy, 4 observance of vows of chastity, 5 permission for private masses, and 6 the importance of auricular confession.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">In Christian theology, transubstantiation (in Latin, "</span><i style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">transsubstantiatio</i><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">", in Greek "μετουσίωσις </span><i style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">metousiosis</i><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">") is the doctrine that the substance of the bread and the wine used in the sacrament of the Eucharist is changed, not merely as by a sign or a figure, but also in reality, into the substance of the Body and the Blood of Jesus, while all that is accessible to the senses (the outward appearances - "</span><i style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">species"</i><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;"> in Latin) remains unchanged. What remains unaltered is also referred to as the "</span><i style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">accidents</i><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">" of the bread and wine.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://artofheraldry.blogspot.co.uk/2011/08/british-heraldry.html" target="_blank">Royal Arms of King Edward VI</a><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A major shift in Anglican doctrine came in the reign of Henry's son, <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/spirit-of-england-england-and-catholic.html" target="_blank">Edward VI</a>, who repealed the Six Articles and under whose rule the Church of England became more identifiably Protestant.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Forty-Two Articles' </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">were intended to summarise Anglican doctrine, as it now existed under the reign of <a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2012/10/spirit-of-england-england-and-catholic.html" target="_blank">King Edward VI</a>, who favoured a more Protestant faith.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Largely the work of Thomas Cranmer, they were to be short formularies that would demonstrate the faith revealed in Scripture and the existing Catholic creeds.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Completed in 1552, they were issued by Royal Mandate on 19 June 1553.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Thomas Cranmer </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thomas Cranmer<br />
Archbishop of Canterbury</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thomas Cranmer (2 July 1489 – 21 March 1556) was a leader of the English Reformation and Archbishop of Canterbury during the reigns of Henry VIII and Edward VI.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He helped build the case for the annulment of Henry's marriage to Catherine of Aragon, which was one of the causes of the separation of the English Church from union with the Holy See.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Along with Thomas Cromwell, he supported the principle of 'Royal Supremacy'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thomas Cromwell was an English lawyer and statesman who served as chief minister to King Henry VIII of England from 1532 to 1540, and</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> was one of the strongest advocates of the English Reformation.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In January 1538, Cromwell pursued an extensive campaign against what was termed "<i>idolatry</i>" by extreme protestants.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Early in September, Cromwell also completed a new set of 'vicegerential' injunctions declaring open war on "<i>pilgrimages, feigned relics, or images, or any such superstitions</i>", and commanding that "<i>one book of the whole Bible of the largest volume in English</i>" be set up in every church.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thomas Cromwell</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moreover, following the "<i>voluntary</i>" surrender of the remaining smaller monasteries during the previous year, the larger monasteries were now also "<i>invited</i>" to surrender throughout 1538, a process legitimized in the 1539 session of Parliament and completed in the following year</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Statues, roods, and images were attacked, culminating in September with the dismantling of the shrine of St Thomas Becket at Canterbury. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cromwell was eventually arraigned under a bill of attainder, and executed for treason and heresy on Tower Hill on 28 July 1540.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the same time Cranmer was responsible for much of the 1549 '<i>Book of Common Prayer</i>'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 1549 book was soon succeeded by a more reformed revision in 1552 under the same editorial hand, that of Thomas Cranmer, Archbishop of Canterbury.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During Cranmer's tenure as Archbishop of Canterbury, he was responsible for establishing the first doctrinal and liturgical structures of the reformed Church of England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Under Henry's rule, Cranmer did not make many radical changes in the Church, due to power struggles between religious conservatives and reformers, however, he succeeded in publishing the first officially authorised vernacular service, the Exhortation and Litany.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King Edward </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When King Edward VI came to the throne, Cranmer was able to promote major reforms.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He wrote and compiled the first two editions of the Book of Common Prayer - a complete liturgy for the English Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cranmer, however, was not really concerned with the principle of '<i>authority</i>', which was the major concern of Henry VIII, but was rather concerned with the overthrow of <i>Catholic doctrine and usage</i>, and was determined to return the church in England to what he imagined were the principles of the 'primitive' and 'authentic' early church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the assistance of several Continental reformers, to whom he gave refuge, he developed new doctrinal standards in areas such as the Eucharist, clerical celibacy, the role of images in places of worship, and the veneration of saints.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Cranmer promulgated the new doctrines through the Prayer Book, the Homilies and other publications.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After the accession of the Roman Catholic Mary I, Cranmer was put on trial for treason and heresy, and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">was imprisoned, and later executed.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Edwardian Reformation</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">King Edward VI </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Edward VI (12 October 1537 – 6 July 1553) was King of England and Ireland from 28 January 1547 until his death.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was crowned on 20 February at the age of nine.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The son of Henry VIII and Jane Seymour, Edward was the third monarch of the Tudor dynasty and England's first monarch raised as a Protestant. During Edward's reign, the realm was governed by a Regency Council because he never reached his majority.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Council was first led by his uncle Edward Seymour, 1st Duke of Somerset, (1547–1549), and then by John Dudley, 1st Earl of Warwick, from 1551 Duke of Northumberland.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Anglican Church was transformed into a recognisably Protestant body under Edward, who took great interest in religious matters.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although Henry VIII had severed the link between the Church of England and Rome, he never permitted the renunciation of Catholic doctrine or ceremony (see above).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was during Edward's reign that Protestantism was established for the first time in England with reforms that included the abolition of clerical celibacy and the Mass, and the imposition of compulsory services in English, justification by faith alone and communion for laity as well as clergy in both kinds, of bread and wine.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After 1551, the Reformation advanced further, with the approval and encouragement of Edward, who began to exert more personal influence in his role as 'Supreme Head of the Church of England'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Edward's reformed religion, finally divested the communion service of any notion of the '<i>real presence</i>' of God in the bread and the wine, effectively abolished the mass.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Though the Church's practices and approach to the sacraments became strongly influenced by those of continental reformers, it nevertheless retained episcopal church structure.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Catholic Interegnum</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Queen Mary I - Tudor</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Book of Common Prayer was initially used only for a few months, as Edward VI died in 1553.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As the fourth crowned monarch of the Tudor dynasty, Mary is remembered for her restoration of Roman Catholicism after the short-lived Protestant reign of her half-brother.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When Mary ascended the throne, she was proclaimed under the same official style as Henry VIII and Edward VI: "<i>Mary, by the Grace of God, Queen of England, France and Ireland, Defender of the Faith, and of the Church of England and of Ireland on Earth Supreme Head</i>".</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Arms of Queen Mary I<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The title 'Supreme Head of the Church' was repugnant to Mary's Catholicism, and she omitted it from Christmas 1553.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Mary's first Parliament, which assembled in early October 1553, declared the marriage of her parents valid, and abolished Edward's religious laws.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Church doctrine was <i>restored</i> to the form it had taken in the 1539 'Six Articles', which, for example, re-affirmed clerical celibacy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Married priests were deprived of their benefices</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During her five-year reign, she had over 280 religious dissenters burned at the stake in the Marian persecutions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Her re-establishment of Roman Catholicism was reversed after her death in 1558 by her younger half-sister and successor, Elizabeth I.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the coronation of Queen Mary I and the reunion of the Church of England with the Roman Catholic Church, the Articles were never enforced, however, after Mary's death, they became the basis of the 'Thirty-Nine Articles'.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Elizabeth I</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Arms of Queen Elizabeth I<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Queen Elizabeth I of England</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Elizabeth I (7 September 1533 – 24 March 1603) was queen regnant of England and Ireland from 17 November 1558 until her death.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sometimes called "The Virgin Queen" or "Gloriana" Elizabeth was the fifth and last monarch of the Tudor dynasty.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After being repealed by the Roman Catholic Queen Mary I, the '<i>Act of Supremacy'</i> was was reinstated in 1559 </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">by Mary's Protestant half-sister, Queen Elizabeth I, when she ascended the throne. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Elizabeth declared herself '<i>Supreme Governor of the Church of England',</i> and instituted an '<i>Oath of Supremacy'</i>, requiring anyone taking public or church office to swear allegiance to the monarch as 'Supreme Governor of the Church of England'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To placate critics, the '<i>Oath of Supremacy'</i> which nobles were required to swear, gave the monarch's title as '<i>Supreme Governor</i>' rather than '<i>Supreme Head</i>' of the church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This wording avoided the charge that the monarchy was claiming <i>divinity </i>or <i>usurping Christ</i>, whom the Bible explicitly identifies as '<i>Head of the Church</i>'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From then on the Church of England was referred to as the '<i>Established Church</i>'.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Thirty Nine Articles of 1562</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the 'Thirty Nine Articles' of 1562 </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">(see below) the claim to royal supremacy is clearly stated: </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">"</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The King's majesty hath the chief power in this Realm of England, and other of his Dominions, unto whom the chief Government of all Estates of this Realm, whether they be Ecclesiastical or Civil, in all causes doth appertain, and is not, nor ought to be, subject to any foreign jurisdiction. We give not to our Princes the ministering either of God's Word, or of the Sacraments, but that only prerogative, which we see to have been given always to all Godly Princes in holy Scriptures by God himself; that is, that they should rule all estates and degrees committed to their charge by God, whether they be Ecclesiastical or Temporal, and restrain with the civil sword the stubborn and evildoer. The Bishop of Rome hath no jurisdiction in this Realm of England</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">."</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1563, Convocation met under Archbishop Parker to revise the '<i>Forty-Two Articles</i>'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Convocation passed only 39 of the 42, and Elizabeth I reduced the number to 38 by throwing out Article XXIX to <i>avoid offending her subjects with Catholic leanings</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1571, the XXIXth Article, despite the opposition of Bishop Edmund Guest, was inserted, to the effect that '<i>the wicked do not eat the Body of Christ</i>'.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://artofheraldry.blogspot.co.uk/2013/03/eclesistical-heraldry.html" target="_blank">Arms of the Holy See</a><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was done following the queen's excommunication by the Pope in 1570.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">That act <i>destroyed</i> any hope of <i>reconciliation with Rome </i>and it was no longer necessary to fear that Article XXIX would offend Catholic sensibilities.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Articles, increased to Thirty-nine, were ratified by the Queen, and the bishops and clergy were required to assent.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1559 Elizabeth I reintroduced the 1552 'Book of Common Prayer' with a few modifications to make it acceptable to more traditionally minded worshippers, notably the inclusion of the words of administration from the 1549 Communion Service alongside those of 1552.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1604 James I ordered some further changes, the most significant of these being the addition to the Catechism of a section on the Sacraments.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://artofheraldry.blogspot.co.uk/2011/08/british-heraldry.html" target="_blank">Coat of Arms of the Commonwealth</a><br />
<a href="http://artofheraldry.blogspot.co.uk/2011/08/british-heraldry.html" target="_blank">of England Scotland and Ireland</a><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following the tumultuous events leading to and including the English Civil War, another major revision of the 'Book of Common Prayer' was published in 1662.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">That edition has remained the official prayer book of the Church of England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was The Book of Common Prayer that caused major disputes between the Anglo-Catholics and their opponents in the 1920s. - (See '<a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/the-triumph-of-anglo-catholicism.html" target="_blank">The Triumph of Anglo-Catholicism</a>')</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Elizabethan Religious Settlement was an attempt to end the religious divisions among Christians in England, and is often seen as an important event in Anglican history, ultimately laying the foundations for the "<i>via media</i>" concept of Anglicanism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Elizabeth established an 'English Church' that helped shape a national identity.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Those who praised her later as a Protestant heroine overlooked her <i>refusal </i>to drop all practices of Catholic origin from the Church of England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Historians note that in her day, strict Protestants regarded the Acts of Settlement and Uniformity of 1559 as a compromise.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In fact, Elizabeth believed that faith was personal and did not wish, as Francis Bacon put it, to "<i>make windows into men's hearts and secret thoughts</i>"</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The nature of early Anglicanism was to be of great importance to the Anglo-Catholics of the 19th century, who would argue that their beliefs and practices were common during this period and were inoffensive to the earliest members of the Church of England.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Origins of Anglo-Catholicism</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The origins of Anglo-Catholicism as a distinct movement, dating from 1833 to 1841, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">go back to the Victorian Anglican Church, and specifically to a group of scholars and priests at Oxford University.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The movement that they started is often called the 'Oxford Movement', although at the time, their opponents called them 'Tractarians'.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John Keble</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Edward Bouverie Pusey</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The movement, which included among others John Henry Newman, Edward Bouverie Pusey and John Keble, wrote tracts and pamphlets, in an attempt to recall the Church of England to its <i>apostolic origins</i>; to remind the Bishops that they were <i>successors of the Apostles</i> who had a duty to <i>guard the Faith </i>and the Church from attacks by the State and liberalism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These Tracts were a series of 90 theological publications, varying in length from a few pages to book-length, produced by members of the Oxford Movement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There were about a dozen authors, including Oxford Movement leaders John Keble, John Henry Newman and Edward Pusey, with Newman taking the initiative in the series, and making the largest contribution.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With the wide distribution associated with the tract form, and a price in pennies, the Tracts succeeded in drawing attention to the views of the Oxford Movement on points of doctrine, but also to its overall approach, to the extent that Tractarian became a synonym for supporter of the movement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many of the tracts were labelled, indicating their intended audience: '<i>Ad Clerum</i>' (to the clergy), '<i>Ad Populum'</i> (to the people), or '<i>Ad Scholas' </i>(to scholars).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The first 20 tracts appeared in 1833, with 30 more in 1834.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After that the pace slowed, but the later contributions were more substantive on doctrinal matters.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Initially these publications were anonymous, pseudonymous, or reprints from theologians of previous centuries. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The movement postulated the 'Branch Theory', which states that Anglicanism along with Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism form three "<i>branches</i>" of the one "<i>Catholic - that is Universal </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Church.</i></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They argued for the inclusion of <i>traditional aspects</i> of liturgy from<i> medieval religious practice.</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the final Tract XC, Newman argued that the <i>doctrines </i>of the Roman Catholic Church, as defined by the Council of Trent, were <i>compatible</i> with the 'Thirty-Nine Articles' of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1563.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Concilium Tridentinum</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Concilium Tridentinum (Council of Trent) was an Ecumenical Council of the Catholic Church. It is considered to be one of the Church's most important councils. It convened in Trento, Italy, between 13 December 1545, and 4 December 1563 in twenty-five sessions for three periods. During the pontificate of Pope Paul III, the Council fathers met for the first eight sessions in Trento (1545–47), and for the ninth to eleventh sessions in Bologna (1547). Under Pope Julius III, the Council met in Trento (1551–52) for the twelfth to sixteenth sessions, and under Pope Pius IV, the seventeenth to twenty-fifth sessions took place in Trento (1559–63).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Thirty-Nine Articles of Religion' are the historically defining statements of doctrines of the Church of England with respect to the controversies of the English Reformation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The articles served to define the doctrine of the Church of England as it related to Calvinist doctrine and Roman Catholic practice</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A summary of the 39 Articles is as follows:</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Articles I–VIII: The Catholic faith: The first five articles articulate the Catholic credal statements concerning the nature of God, manifest in the Holy Trinity.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Articles VI and VII deal with scripture, while Article VIII discusses the essential creeds.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Articles IX—XVIII: Personal religion: These articles dwell on the topics of sin, justification, and the eternal disposition of the soul. Of particular focus is the major Reformation topic of justification by faith. The Articles in this section and in the section on the Church plant Anglicanism in the via media of the debate, portraying an Economy of Salvation where good works are an outgrowth of faith and there is a role for the Church and for the sacraments.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John Henry Newman</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Articles XIX–XXXI: Corporate religion: This section focuses on the expression of faith in the public venue – the institutional church, the councils of the church, worship, ministry, and sacramental theology.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Articles XXXII—XXXIX: Miscellaneous: These articles concern clerical celibacy, excommunication, traditions of the Church, and other issues not covered elsewhere. Article XXXVII additionally states among other things that the Bishop of Rome had no jurisdiction in the realm of England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Newman's abandonment of Anglicanism, by conversion to Roman Catholicism, followed by the conversion of Henry Edward Manning in 1851, had a profound effect upon the movement, and t</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">raditionally the end of Tractarianism is seen as Newman’s conversion to Roman Catholicism on the 8 th October 1845.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif;">for more information and images see</span></div>
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<tr><td><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-and-homosexuality.html" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ZpUBF78D1LU/UrOVDEssk3I/AAAAAAAAWNU/54vR_tWFLVU/s200/Cardinal+John+Henry+Newman+-+Homosexuality+and+Anglo+Catholicism+-+Roberto+Ferri+-+'San+Sebastiano'+-+Religious+Art+-+Great+Art+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="191" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-and-homosexuality.html" target="_blank">ANGLO-CATHOLICISM and HOMOSXUALITY</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Catholics, being closer to Roman Catholics than to Evangelicals or Liberal Anglicans in doctrinal matters, believe in the <i>efficiency of the sacraments</i> for salvation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This means that it is of the utmost importance that the sacraments are not <i>tampered</i> with in any way.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Sacramental assurance, the way in which it is known the sacraments are valid, comes from apostolic succession: the laying-on of hands from bishop to bishop and from bishop to priest that can be traced back to the apostles, and through them to Christ himself.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is apostolic succession that makes Anglo-Catholics part of the Catholic Church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Away from the sacraments most Anglo-Catholics tend to agree with Roman Catholics on issues such as the place of Mary in the Church, Purgatory and prayers to the saints in heaven and most ethical teachings.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Liturgy</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is no “typical” Anglo-Catholic liturgy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One Anglo-Catholic priest in might celebrate the Mass facing east according to the Alternative Service Book, another in might celebrate Mass with incense, whilst facing west according to Common Worship, and yet another might celebrate Mass facing east with incense whilst using the Roman Rite (the Roman Catholic liturgy).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nevertheless a common theme among Anglo-Catholic Masses is that they are “High-Church”; ritualistic, colourful and full of symbolism.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Roots of Anglo-Catholicism</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Catholicism, although its adherents would deny it, is fundamentally 'backward looking'.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ford Madox Brown Pre-Raphaelite 1852-63 - 'Work' </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It arose in the nineteenth century, partially as a response to the anxieties created by the unprecedented social and economic changes generated by the industrial revolution, and partially under the influence of the Romantic movement of the same period.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While some sought to embrace such fundamental changes - a decision which gave rise to modernism (not only in its clerical and theological forms - but also in terms of culture, and social and political philosophy), many others attempted to stem the headlong rush into modernity by valorising a return to past traditions and beliefs, and among such a groups were the Anglo-Catholics.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Anglo Catholics achieved this by looking back to a period before the Reformation, when the Church of England was part of the Universal (Catholic) Church of Rome.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Anglo-Catholicism and the Arts</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John Everett Millais</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">William Holman Hunt</td></tr>
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Another such group who were intent on valorising the distant past were the Pre-Raphaelites.</div>
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The Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (also known as the Pre-Raphaelites) was a group of English painters, poets, and critics, founded in 1848 by William Holman Hunt, John Everett Millais and Dante Gabriel Rossetti.</div>
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The three founders were joined by William Michael Rossetti, James Collinson, Frederic George Stephens and Thomas Woolner to form the seven-member "brotherhood".</div>
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Later artists influenced by the brotherhood include William Morris, John Brett, Philip Calderon, Arthur Hughes, Evelyn De Morgan, Frederic Sandys and John William Waterhouse.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ford Madox Brown</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-f5piyL5D2-w/Uq5ONWlnyRI/AAAAAAAAVmg/vyDhb6l1eiM/s1600/John+William+Waterhouse+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-f5piyL5D2-w/Uq5ONWlnyRI/AAAAAAAAVmg/vyDhb6l1eiM/s1600/John+William+Waterhouse+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="125" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John William Waterhouse</td></tr>
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Ford Madox Brown, who was associated with them from the beginning, is often seen as most closely adopting the Pre-Raphaelite principles.</div>
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One follower who developed his own distinct style was Aubrey Beardsley, who was pre-eminently influenced by Burne-Jones.</div>
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The group's original intention was to reform art by rejecting the approaches to art adopted by the Mannerist artists who succeeded Raphael and Michelangelo.</div>
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The brotherhood's early doctrines were expressed in four declarations:</div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">to have genuine ideas to express</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">to study nature attentively, so as to know how to express them</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">to sympathise with what is direct and serious and heartfelt in previous art, to the exclusion of what is conventional and self-parodying and learned by rote</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">most indispensable of all, to produce thoroughly good pictures and statues</span></div>
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Despite these aims, much of the work of the Pre-Raphaelites, and those influenced by them, focused on the 'Middle Ages', and was much influenced by the Gothic Revival and the lingering effects of Romanticism.</div>
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An interesting case in point is that of William Morris.</div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">William Morris</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ECeBSVzS_mc/Uq5LtCFpLpI/AAAAAAAAVl8/SOsGQKRwf84/s1600/William+Morris+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-ECeBSVzS_mc/Uq5LtCFpLpI/AAAAAAAAVl8/SOsGQKRwf84/s1600/William+Morris+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="175" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">William Morris</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The solidly middle class Morris family was 'nouveau riche', but with strong religious values; the elder Morris was an Evangelical, and his household was strictly run, despite the indulgences he lavished on his eldest son.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although William had his eight siblings, two older sisters, and the rest younger, he was a bookish and solitary child.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When William was 13, his childhood came to an end.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His father died suddenly, and the family moved to a more modest home.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Shortly thereafter, William was sent off to Marlborough College, a rough public school.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Morris later wrote that he had learnt nothing there.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What he did learn at Marlborough was how to communicate to members of other social classes, an ability that would serve him in good stead later.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He also turned from the Evangelicism of his family in favour of Anglo-Catholicism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What attracted him to this wing of the Church of England was undoubtedly the fact that called for moral seriousness, and stressed ritual and ceremony, with a return to the social and artistic values of the middle ages.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MakrKU0j7Q4/Uq-xJEDJKqI/AAAAAAAAVwM/lnB7CnVPUMs/s1600/Exeter+College+Chapel+Oxford+-+Willaim+Morris+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-MakrKU0j7Q4/Uq-xJEDJKqI/AAAAAAAAVwM/lnB7CnVPUMs/s1600/Exeter+College+Chapel+Oxford+-+Willaim+Morris+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="320" width="316" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Exeter College Oxford - Chapel</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Later Morris attended Exeter College at Oxford, where he planned a career as a member of the Anglo-Catholic clergy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By mid-century, the "Oxford Movement" had permeated undergraduate life with a distinctly spiritual flavor:</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Church is a divinely ordained and ordered society intended to transcend politics, geography, and time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The experience of such a society changes how individuals think about spiritual matters.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was, in essence, a theological romantic rebellion against the rationalism of the Enlightenment that had taken hold in the Church of England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Within a few days of his arrival, Morris met and befriended Edward Burne-Jones, who was to remain his closest life-long friend.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For Morris, Anglo-Catholicism had a strong aesthetic appeal, both visually and musically.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a child he had been enraptured by Canterbury Cathedral, and his letters to his sister Emma from Marlborough, where he first came into contact with the High Church, are full of discussion of church music, architecture and festivals.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Exeter College Coat of Arms</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-W6vlHDYyRQ0/U2ALvotUwvI/AAAAAAAAZAA/hM3zdlKtlx4/s1600/Exeter+College+Quad+-+This+England++-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-W6vlHDYyRQ0/U2ALvotUwvI/AAAAAAAAZAA/hM3zdlKtlx4/s1600/Exeter+College+Quad+-+This+England++-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="133" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Exeter College Quad - Oxford</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But there was more to the Oxford Movement than ritual, music, and Gothic architecture; it 'was primarily a spiritual force, a quest for holiness through self-denial and mortification of bodily and worldly appetites.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Included in the "ascetic motive" were strict notions of prayer, alms-giving, fasting, the ideal of poverty, voluntary retirement, repentance and penance'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Burne-Jones also introduced Morris to Charles Faulkner, who would be a founding member of Morris, Marshall, Faulkner and Co. ('The Firm').</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Morris, Burne-Jones, and Faulkner and their associates intended lives as clergy, often debating theology and literature until dawn.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Burne-Jones and Morris studied the medieval illuminated manuscripts at the Bodleian Library, becoming increasingly of the opinion that the Middle Ages church-centred communities offered a model a better model of social organization than industrialized England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the time, Morris intended to use his inheritance to found a monastery on this model. In the summer of 1855, the two friends became interested in John Ruskin, whose works introduced him to the Pre-Raphaelites.</span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WrfkqjD7A74/Uq94Oy-zqkI/AAAAAAAAVqo/k5oCAczyJ-s/s1600/The+Charge+of+David+to+Solomon+-+(detail)+-+Edward+Burne+Jones+and+William+Morris.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-WrfkqjD7A74/Uq94Oy-zqkI/AAAAAAAAVqo/k5oCAczyJ-s/s1600/The+Charge+of+David+to+Solomon+-+(detail)+-+Edward+Burne+Jones+and+William+Morris.png" height="265" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Charge of David to Solomon - (detail)<br />
Edward Burne-Jones and William Morris</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They sought out works by Millais and Rossetti. In the aims of the Brotherhood they found the authenticity and direction in life that they had previously looked for in the pursuit of a religious vocation.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On a tour of Gothic architecture in northern France with Burne-Jones in 1855, the die was cast: </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The two abandoned their intentions to take Holy Orders, and resolved to dedicate themselves to a life of art, Burne-Jones to painting, and Morris to architecture.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is difficult to overestimate the impact of the Gothic Revival, not only on Morris and Burne-Jones, but on the age.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Gothic Revival movement began in the 1740s, but by the mid-nineteenth century it was so intertwined with the Oxford Movement's call to renewed spirituality that the forms of buildings presented a visual tableau of the reactionary response to industrialization.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, the architect Augustus Welby Pugin widened the compass of medieval art and architecture to include the whole medieval ethos, asserting that Gothic architecture was born of a purer society.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ahFDjBuwGdU/Uq5JxFsyCSI/AAAAAAAAVlo/dV9LyVlme5A/s1600/Edward_Burne_Jones_+William_Morris.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ahFDjBuwGdU/Uq5JxFsyCSI/AAAAAAAAVlo/dV9LyVlme5A/s1600/Edward_Burne_Jones_+William_Morris.jpg" height="200" width="161" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Burne-Jones and William Morris</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1856, Morris moved in with Burne-Jones in modest quarters in London. Burne-Jones had managed to meet Rossetti, arguably the driving force behind the first wave of Pre-Raphaelite art.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rossetti's work had by now moved from painting from nature to medieval and chivalric themes, themes that resonated with Morris's own internal harmony.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-kDoInFJOn74/Uq5XpIcXEkI/AAAAAAAAVnw/mfmwZj5RQsQ/s1600/Morris+and+Company+Textile+Printing+-+Merton+Abbey+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-kDoInFJOn74/Uq5XpIcXEkI/AAAAAAAAVnw/mfmwZj5RQsQ/s1600/Morris+and+Company+Textile+Printing+-+Merton+Abbey+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="216" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Morris, Marshall, Faulkner, & Co.</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1861 Morris founded Morris, Marshall, Faulkner, & Co.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Among 'The Firm's' first products were tiles, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">designed by Morris in botanical patterns or by Burne-Jones on medieval, mythic, and fairy tale themes.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This moved naturally into stained glass, and many of the designs for tile were implemented as stained glass as well as vice versa.<br />The growth of Anglo-Catholicism had encouraged a return to ritual, and evocative church adornment, and churches began to add stained glass windows, tiles, and furnishing in religious motifs. Soon, the majority of 'The Firm's' business was ecclesiastical.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Edward Burne-Jones</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Edward Burne-Jones</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Burne-Jones was closely involved in the rejuvenation of the tradition of stained glass art in Britain.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Burne-Jones's early paintings show the heavy inspiration of Dante Gabriel Rossetti, but by the 1860s Burne-Jones was discovering his own artistic "voice".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At Oxford Burne-Jones became a friend of William Morris as a consequence of a mutual interest in poetry.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The two Exeter undergraduates, together with a small group of Jones' friends from Birmingham known as the 'Birmingham Set', speedily formed a very close and intimate society, which they called "The Brotherhood".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The members of the 'Brotherhood' read John Ruskin and Tennyson, visited churches, and worshipped the Middle Ages.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-VJXWZw1IRSU/Uq5Z750g9WI/AAAAAAAAVoE/n97LKbOxUpQ/s1600/days_of_creation+-+Burne+Jones+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-VJXWZw1IRSU/Uq5Z750g9WI/AAAAAAAAVoE/n97LKbOxUpQ/s1600/days_of_creation+-+Burne+Jones+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="154" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Days of Creation</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At this time Burne-Jones discovered Thomas Malory's 'Le Morte d'Arthur', which was to be so influential in his life.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At that time neither Burne-Jones nor Morris knew Rossetti personally, but both were much influenced by his works, and met him by recruiting him as a contributor to their 'Oxford and Cambridge Magazine' which Morris founded in 1856 to promote their ideas.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Burne-Jones had intended to become a church minister, but under Rossetti's influence both he and Morris decided to become artists, and Burne-Jones left college before taking a degree to pursue a career in art.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1877, he was persuaded to show eight oil paintings at the Grosvenor Gallery (a new rival to the Royal Academy).</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5fd0glGYs20/Uq96asXiCwI/AAAAAAAAVq4/Cd8Azf45DYQ/s1600/Edward+Burne-Jones+-+The+Star+of+Bethlehem+-+Great+Art+-+Religious+Art+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-5fd0glGYs20/Uq96asXiCwI/AAAAAAAAVq4/Cd8Azf45DYQ/s1600/Edward+Burne-Jones+-+The+Star+of+Bethlehem+-+Great+Art+-+Religious+Art+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="214" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Star of Bethlehem</td></tr>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-9WqUKz2_ZmM/Uq5ZYNlZw4I/AAAAAAAAVn8/WAb0XdNJnAI/s1600/Edward_Burne-Jones_The_Annunciation.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-9WqUKz2_ZmM/Uq5ZYNlZw4I/AAAAAAAAVn8/WAb0XdNJnAI/s1600/Edward_Burne-Jones_The_Annunciation.jpg" height="320" width="138" /></a></div>
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The Annunciation</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These included 'The Beguiling of Merlin'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The timing was right, and he was taken up as a herald and star of the new 'Aesthetic Movement'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition to painting and stained glass, Burne-Jones worked in a variety of crafts; including designing ceramic tiles, jewellery, tapestries, mosaics and book illustration, most famously designing woodcuts for the Morris Kelmscott Press's 'Chaucer' in 1896.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ciavc7r-BZc/Uq-Sa5IamkI/AAAAAAAAVsU/lEdUV18tq_A/s1600/Burne-Jones+-+The+Nativity+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ciavc7r-BZc/Uq-Sa5IamkI/AAAAAAAAVsU/lEdUV18tq_A/s1600/Burne-Jones+-+The+Nativity+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="111" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Nativity</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Burne-Jones's paintings were one strand in the evolving tapestry of 'Aestheticism' from the 1860s through the 1880s, which considered that art should be valued as an object of beauty engendering a sensual response, rather than for the story or moral implicit in the subject matter. In many ways this was antithetical to the ideals of Ruskin and the early Pre-Raphaelites.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Regardless, Burne-Jones devoted much of his time to advancing the cause of Anglo-Catholicism, in it's Medieval - Gothic form, through his production of fine art, stained glass windows, metalwork and various designs for liturgical objects, and although both Burne-Jones and Morris had considered converting to Rome, both finally decided to stay true to the Anglo-Catholic faith.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Dante Gabriel Rossetti</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dKmKevCjaFU/Uq5JZCmD1gI/AAAAAAAAVlg/L3ATMjmwMSc/s1600/dante+gabriel+rossetti+-+self+portrait+-+1847+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dKmKevCjaFU/Uq5JZCmD1gI/AAAAAAAAVlg/L3ATMjmwMSc/s1600/dante+gabriel+rossetti+-+self+portrait+-+1847+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="175" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Dante Gabriel Rossetti<br />
self portrait</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dante Gabriel Rossetti was the actual founder of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, along with William Holman Hunt and John Everett Millais, and was later to be the main inspiration for a second generation of artists and writers influenced by the movement, most notably William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His work also influenced the European Symbolists and was a major precursor of the Aesthetic movement.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rossetti's art was characterised by its sensuality and its <i>medieval revivalism</i>.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His early poetry was influenced by John Keats.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-8s1cWwLwxUs/Uq5aqyK8HbI/AAAAAAAAVoQ/NFQOKgavr4Y/s1600/the+annunciation+-+Dante+Gabriel+Rossetti+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-8s1cWwLwxUs/Uq5aqyK8HbI/AAAAAAAAVoQ/NFQOKgavr4Y/s1600/the+annunciation+-+Dante+Gabriel+Rossetti+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="320" width="181" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Ecce Ancilla Domini<br />
The Annunciation</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His later poetry was characterised by the complex interlinking of thought and feeling, especially in his sonnet sequence 'The House of Life'.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-DUvH6eAroec/Uq-JDPdtp6I/AAAAAAAAVro/w_PV4yUA5pg/s1600/Rossetti+-+St+George+and+the+Dragon+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-DUvH6eAroec/Uq-JDPdtp6I/AAAAAAAAVro/w_PV4yUA5pg/s1600/Rossetti+-+St+George+and+the+Dragon+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="277" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St George and the Dragon</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Poetry and image are closely entwined in Rossetti's work; he frequently wrote sonnets to accompany his pictures.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The son of émigré Italian scholar Gabriele Pasquale Giuseppe Rossetti and his wife Frances Polidori, Rossetti was born in London, and named Gabriel Charles Dante Rossetti.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After leaving the Royal Academy, Rossetti studied under Ford Madox Brown, with whom he retained a close relationship throughout his life.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rossetti's first major paintings in oil display the realist qualities of the early Pre-Raphaelite movement.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His 'Girlhood of Mary Virgin' (1849) and 'Ecce Ancilla Domini' (1850) portray Mary as a teenage girl.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His later visions of Arthurian romance and medieval design helped to inspire William Morris and Edward Burne-Jones. </span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6KEujxifktY/Uq7egZr9nVI/AAAAAAAAVos/VwEbrtZnHlo/s1600/Dante+Gabriel+Rossetti+-+The+Damsel+of+the+Sanct+Grail+-+Hitler+and+the+Holy+Grail+-+Occult+History+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-6KEujxifktY/Uq7egZr9nVI/AAAAAAAAVos/VwEbrtZnHlo/s1600/Dante+Gabriel+Rossetti+-+The+Damsel+of+the+Sanct+Grail+-+Hitler+and+the+Holy+Grail+-+Occult+History+Third+Reich+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="125" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Damsel of the Sanct Grail </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Neither Burne-Jones nor Morris knew Rossetti, but were much influenced by his works, and met him by recruiting him as a contributor to their 'Oxford and Cambridge Magazine' which Morris founded in 1856 to promote his ideas about art and poetry (see above).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1861, Rossetti became a founding partner in the decorative arts firm, Morris, Marshall, Faulkner & Co. with Morris, Burne-Jones, Ford Madox Brown, Philip Webb, Charles Faulkner and Peter Paul Marshall.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rossetti contributed designs for stained glass and other decorative objects.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Rossetti family, although originally Italian, were Anglicans, and attended Christ Church on Albany Street; a church known "<i>at this time for its High Church ritual and Catholic appearance</i>", and Rossetti was heavily involved, as were other members of the 'Brotherhood' in the Anglo-Catholic movement.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rossetti, as a result of his religious tenancies, makes faith appear <i>aesthetic </i>and <i>mystical </i>in his numerous religious paintings.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">William Holman Hunt</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ps1SkCh5d2w/Uq-Fvi9fRaI/AAAAAAAAVrQ/vTewsCTvkDU/s1600/William+Holman+Hunt+-+Portrait+-+Pre-Raphaelite+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Ps1SkCh5d2w/Uq-Fvi9fRaI/AAAAAAAAVrQ/vTewsCTvkDU/s1600/William+Holman+Hunt+-+Portrait+-+Pre-Raphaelite+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="163" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">William Holman Hunt</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hunt was born in London, the son of a warehouse manager.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Holman Hunt left school early and went to work as a clerk at the age of 12.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But office work bored him, he dreamed instead of being an artist.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eventually he persuaded his reluctant parents to allow him to attend the R.A. Schools in </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1844, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">where he could pursue his ambition to be a painter.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He met J.E. Millais around this time.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hunt exhibited at the Royal Manchester Institution from 1845, and at the Royal Academy and the British Institution from 1846.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 1848, with D.G. Rossetti and Millais, he formed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood - (see above).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hunt left England for Egypt in January 1854, spending two years in the Holy Land.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-frDfa_tXVaE/Uq-Dw5yCioI/AAAAAAAAVrE/cqyDUmRmEI0/s1600/William+Holman+Hunt+-+The+Scapegoat+-+Pre-Raphaelite+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-frDfa_tXVaE/Uq-Dw5yCioI/AAAAAAAAVrE/cqyDUmRmEI0/s1600/William+Holman+Hunt+-+The+Scapegoat+-+Pre-Raphaelite+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="239" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Scapegoat'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The major painting to result from this stay was 'The Scapegoat' (1854-5, Lady Lever Art Gallery, Port Sunlight).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He contributed to Moxon's edition of Tennyson's Poems in 1857.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1865 he married Fanny Waugh.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They left England for the East in August 1866; however while in quarantine detention in Florence Fanny gave birth to a son, contracted miliary fever and died.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hunt returned to England in September 1867.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The following year he travelled back to Florence to work on a memorial to Fanny.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Deeply religious, he was another of the Pre-Raphaelite artist drawn toward the Anglo-Catholic position.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Shadow of Death</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Fqr0NnwFgq0/UJ-JK9XmYKI/AAAAAAAAK64/SBonAm40ojY/s1600/Holman+Hunt+-+The+Light+of+The+World+-++Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-Fqr0NnwFgq0/UJ-JK9XmYKI/AAAAAAAAK64/SBonAm40ojY/s1600/Holman+Hunt+-+The+Light+of+The+World+-++Spirit+of+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="320" width="156" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Light of the World</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His paintings were notable for their great attention to detail, vivid colour and elaborate symbolism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These features were influenced by the writings of John Ruskin and Thomas Carlyle, according to whom the world itself should be read as a system of visual signs.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For Hunt it was the duty of the artist to reveal the correspondence between sign and fact.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Out of all the members of the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood Hunt remained most true to their ideals throughout his career.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was always keen to maximise the popular appeal and public visibility of his works.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He eventually had to give up painting because failing eyesight meant that he could not get the level of quality that he wanted.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His last major works, 'The Lady of Shalott' and 'The Light of the World' were completed with the help of his assistant Edward Robert Hughes.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'The Light of the World,' begun in 1851, symbolized Christian salvation coming to a sinful world through the over-abundant, and sadly neglected undergrowth.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To achieve realism he did much of this painting at night by the light of a lamp.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The two works are full of symbolic meaning, the light and dark, the luxuriant, uncontrolled plants, and so on.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He developed his own artistic language to describe the style that he termed "<i>symbolic realism</i>."</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With this he wanted to bring religious painting, specifically Christian, up to date for a post-Industrial audience to understand and appreciate, and to give modern churchgoers their own contemporary iconography.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">John Everett Millais</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John Everett Millais</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Millais was born in Southampton, England in 1829, of a prominent Jersey-based family.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His prodigious artistic talent won him a place at the Royal Academy schools at the unprecedented age of eleven.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While there, he met William Holman Hunt and Dante Gabriel Rossetti with whom he formed the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood (known as the "PRB") in September 1848 in his family home on Gower Street, off Bedford Square.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Christ in the House of His Parents</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Millais's 'Christ in the House of His Parents' (1850) was highly controversial because of its realistic portrayal of a working class Holy Family labouring in a messy carpentry workshop. </span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Later works were also controversial, though less so.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Millais achieved popular success with 'A Huguenot' (1852), which depicts a young couple about to be separated because of religious conflicts.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He repeated this theme in many later works.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">All these early works were painted with great attention to detail, often concentrating on the beauty and complexity of the natural world.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In paintings such as 'Ophelia' (1852) Millais created dense and elaborate pictorial surfaces based on the integration of naturalistic elements.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This approach has been described as a kind of "pictorial eco-system".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This style was promoted by the critic John Ruskin, who had defended the Pre-Raphaelites against their critics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: left;">Millais later began to paint in a broader style, which was condemned by Ruskin as "<i>a catastrophe</i>".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: left;"> Unsympathetic critics such as William Morris accused him of "selling out" to achieve popularity and wealth.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Arts and Crafts Movement</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Arts and Crafts was an international design movement that flourished between 1860 and 1910, especially in the second half of that period, continuing its influence until the 1930s.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was led by the artist and writer William Morris (1834–1896) during the 1860s, and was inspired by the writings of John Ruskin (1819–1900).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was largely a reaction against the impoverished state of the decorative arts at the time, and the conditions in which they were produced.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It stood for traditional craftsmanship using simple forms and often applied <i>medieval</i>, romantic or folk styles of decoration.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It advocated economic and social reform and was essentially anti-industrial.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Arts and Crafts style started as a search for aesthetic design and decoration and a reaction against the styles that were developed by machine-production.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They were influenced by the <i>Gothic Revival</i> (1830–1880), and were interested in medieval styles, using bold forms and strong colours based on <i>medieval</i> designs.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They claimed to believe in the moral purpose of art, and t</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">ruth to material, structure and function.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1887 the 'Arts and Crafts Exhibition Society' was formed with Walter Crane as president, holding its first exhibition in the New Gallery, London, in November 1888.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was the first show of contemporary decorative arts in London since the Grosvenor Gallery's Winter Exhibition of 1881.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Morris & Co. was well represented in the exhibition with furniture, fabrics, carpets and embroideries.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Edward Burne-Jones observed, "<i>here for the first time one can measure a bit the change that has happened in the last twenty years</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The society still exists as the 'Society of Designer Craftsmen'.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Augustus Pugin</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The major Pre-Raphaelites, while not being directly involved in the development of Anglo-Catholicism, had a significant influence on the cultural milieu of the time.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In particular they helped to create an acceptance of the Gothic, and fostered a sentimental longing for a lost age of mediaevalism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, their influence on other artists and designers was considerable.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Augustus Pugin, of course, in the last years of his life, was deeply affected by the Pre-Raphaelite aesthetic, while the Pre-Raphaelites 'picked up' on Pugin's infatuation with medieval Gothic.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Augustus Welby<br />
Northmore Pugin</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a child he was taken each Sunday by his mother to the services of the fashionable Scottish presbyterian preacher Edward Irving (later founder of the Holy Catholic Apostolic Church), at his chapel in Cross Street, Hatton Garden.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Edward Irving (4 August 1792 – 7 December 1834) was a Scottish clergyman, generally regarded as the main figure behind the foundation of the Catholic Apostolic Church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Catholic Apostolic Church was a religious movement which originated in England around 1831.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic Apostolic Churches were highly ritualised.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The altar was usually ornate, with a receptacle (referred to as the "tabernacle") for storage of the eucharist.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Either side of the altar would be a lamp, lit during high services.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hanging centrally over the sanctuary would be another lamp, lit when the eucharist was stored in the "tabernacle".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Seven lamps, reminiscent of the seven-branched candlestick of the Jewish rituals, would hang over the chancel near the sanctuary.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These would be lit in the morning and put out after the evening service.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">All lamps were oil lamps with wicks and only pure olive oil was used.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There would be a special chair or "throne" for the chief minister at the end of the chancel on the left; in the middle of the chancel at the same level would be a special kneeler used by the minister during the intercession part of the service; a censer stand stood next to it.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Over on the right side of the chancel stood a table of prothesis used for the to-be-consecrated bread and wine for the communion, as well as other offerings as the service demanded.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A lectern was provided in the chancel on the right side for the Scripture readings; while at the front of the chancel two further lecterns, on the left and on the right, were used for the Gospel and Epistle readings in the eucharist service.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A pulpit on the left side (as looking towards the altar) would be provided for preaching.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the back of the nave near an entrance a font with a cover would be placed for baptisms.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A comprehensive book of liturgies and offices was provided and included elements from the Anglican, Roman, and Greek liturgies as well as original work. Lights, incense, vestments, holy water, chrism, and other adjuncts of worship were in constant use.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The community laid great stress on symbolism, and in the Eucharist, while rejecting both transubstantiation and consubstantiation, held strongly to a real (mystical) presence.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Catholic Apostolic Church was undoubtedly fulfilling a need that was also catered to by the Anglo-Catholic movement, and a number of individuals from both groups eventually converted to Rome.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic Apostolic Church eventually disbanded when the last 'Apostle' (Church leader) died in 1901.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unlike the Anglo-Catholics, the church did not have a firm historical foundation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Undoubtedly, however, Pugin was deeply affected by the pomp and ceremony of the Catholic Apostolic Church, which was similar, in many ways, to that of the Roman catholic Church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pugin learned drawing from his father, and for a while attended Christ's Hospital.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After leaving school he worked in his father's office, and in 1825 and 1827 accompanied him on visits to France.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1834, Pugin became a Roman Catholic convert, and was received into the faith in the following year.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His conversion resulted in the loss of some commissions, but also brought him into contact with new patrons and employers.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1836, Pugin published 'Contrasts', a polemical book which argued for the revival of the medieval Gothic style, and also "<i>a return to the faith and the social structures of the Middle Ages</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In his social concerns he was similar, in many ways, to William Morris.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Each plate in the book selected a type of urban building and contrasted the 1830 example with its 15th-century equivalent. </span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Peter's College - Wexford</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Each structure was the built expression of a particular view of humanity: Christianity versus Utilitarianism.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The drawings were all calculatedly unfair. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">King's College London was shown from an unflatteringly skewed angle, while Christ Church, Oxford, was edited to avoid showing its famous Tom Tower because that was by Christopher Wren and so not medieval.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">But the cumulative rhetorical force was tremendous.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In February 1852, while travelling with his son Edward by train, Pugin suffered a total breakdown and arrived in London unable to recognise anyone or speak coherently.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For four months he was confined to a private asylum, Kensington House.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In June, he was transferred to the Royal Bethlem Hospital, popularly known as Bedlam.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He eventually died at his house in Ramsgate on 14 September 1852.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is probable that he was suffering from hyperthyroidism, which would account for his symptoms of exaggerated appetite, perspiration, and restlessness.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Pugin's medical history, including eye problems, and recurrent illness from his early twenties, suggests that he contracted syphilis in his late teens, and this may have been the cause of his death at the age of 40.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The quality of construction in Pugin's buildings was often poor, and he was lacking in technical knowledge, his strength lying more in his facility as a designer of architectural detail.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While his influence was great, and he inspired such inividuals as W. E. Nesfield, Norman Shaw, George Gilbert Scott, William Butterfield and George Edmund Street, his designs were mechanical and repetitive, and his use of colour lacking in refinement.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Most of his effects were obtained by an overwhelming abundance of ornament, much of it, on closer examination, being uninspired and hackneyed.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Regardless, his huge output, (which probably led to his eventual breakdown) and his prestige work, such as the Palace of Westminster, secured, in the public imagination, the legitimacy of the Gothic style.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>If </i>Pugin had been born a little later, he may well have become an Anglo-Catholic, however, as Anglo-Catholicism was in its infancy when he grew to maturity, he became a Roman Catholic.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He had no <i>direct </i>effect on the Anglo-Catholic movement with regard to church architecture and liturgical design, but his promotion of the Gothic style had an enormous effect on the <i>first </i>phase of the Anglo-Catholic liturgical aesthetic. </span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">John Ruskin</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">John Ruskin (8 February 1819 – 20 January 1900) was the leading English art critic of the Victorian era, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">also an art patron, draughtsman, watercolourist, a prominent social thinker and philanthropist.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He wrote on subjects ranging from geology to architecture, myth to ornithology, literature to education, and botany to political economy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In all of his writing, he emphasised the connections between nature, art and society.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He also made detailed sketches and paintings of rocks, plants, birds, landscapes, and architectural structures and ornamentation.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ruskin was brought up as an evangelical, but as an adult he rejected his early faith.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Later in life he became involved in spiritualism.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Mark - Venice - John Ruskin</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">John Ruskin, rightly, was fiercely critical of Pugin's ideas, while on the other hand praising and supporting the Pre-Raphaelites.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ruskin's views on architecture were presented in his two hugely influential theoretical works, 'The Seven Lamps of Architecture' (1849) and 'The Stones of Venice' (1853).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Finding his architectural ideal in Venice, Ruskin proposed that Gothic buildings excelled above all other architecture because of the "<i>sacrifice</i>" of the stone-carvers in intricately decorating every stone.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rather oddly, Ruskin declared the Doge's Palace in Venice to be "<i>the central building of the world</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ruskin’s theories inspired some architects to adopt the '<i>Gothic</i>' style.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Such buildings created what has been called a distinctive "<i>Ruskinian Gothic</i>" - inspired by Venetian Gothic.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Like Pugin, however, while not directly influencing Anglo-Catholicism, his support for the Pre-Raphaelites and the Gothic revival greatly assisted the development of the initial phase of the Anglo-Catholic Liturgical aesthetic.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As the Church of England underwent a revival of Anglo-Catholic and ritualist ideology it became desirable to build large numbers of new churches to cater for the growing population.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This found ready exponents in the universities, where the ecclesiological movement was forming.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Its proponents believed that <i>Gothic</i> was the only style appropriate for a parish church, and favoured a particular era of Gothic architecture - which they termed "English Decorated".</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">English Decorated - Sir Bannister Fletcher</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Decorated Period in architecture is a name given specifically to a division of English Gothic architecture. Traditionally, this period is broken into two periods: the "Geometric" style (1250–90) and the "Curvilinear" style (1290–1350). Decorated architecture is characterised by its window tracery. Elaborate windows are subdivided by closely spaced parallel mullions (vertical bars of stone), usually up to the level at which the arched top of the window begins. The mullions then branch out and cross, intersecting to fill the top part of the window with a mesh of elaborate patterns called tracery, typically including trefoils and quatrefoils. The style was geometrical at first and flowing in the later period, owing to the omission of the circles in the window tracery. This flowing or flamboyant tracery was introduced in the first quarter of the 14th century and lasted about fifty years. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Interiors of this period often feature tall columns of more slender and elegant form than in previous periods. Vaulting became more elaborate, with the use of increasing number of ribs, initially for structural and then aesthetic reasons. Arches are generally equilateral, and the mouldings bolder than in the Early English Period, with less depth in the hollows and with the fillet (a narrow flat band) largely used. The ballflower and a four-leaved flower motif take the place of the earlier dog-tooth. The foliage in the capitals is less conventional than in Early English and more flowing, and the diaper patterns in walls are more varied.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Cambridge Camden Society, through its journal 'The Ecclesiologist', was so savagely critical of new church buildings that were below its exacting standards, and its pronouncements were followed so avidly that it became the epicentre of the flood of Victorian restoration that affected most of the Anglican cathedrals and parish churches in England and Wales.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a result, Gothic Revival succeeded in becoming an increasingly familiar style of architecture, and it became associated with the notion of 'high-church' (Anglo-Catholic) superiority, as advocated by Pugin and the 'ecclesiological movement'.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Ecclesiological Society</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">John Mason Neale<br />
Founder of the Ecclesiological Society</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Ecclesiological Society' from 1845, when it moved to London, was a learned architectural society founded in 1839 by undergraduates at Cambridge University to promote "<i>the study of Gothic Architecture, and of Ecclesiastical Antiques</i>."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Its activities would come to include publishing a monthly journal, 'The Ecclesiologist', advising church builders on their blueprints, and advocating a return to a <i>medieval style</i> of church architecture in England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At its peak influence in the 1840s, the Society counted over 700 members in its ranks, including bishops of the Church of England, deans at Cambridge University, and Members of Parliament.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Society and its publications enjoyed wide influence over the design of English churches throughout the 19th century.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During its twenty-year span, the Ecclesiological Society and its journal influenced virtually every aspect of the Anglican Church, and almost single-handedly reinvented the architectural design of the parish church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The group was responsible for launching some of the first earnest investigations of medieval church design, and through its publications invented and shaped the "<i>science</i>" of 'ecclesiology'. Throughout its lifetime, all of the Society's actions had one goal: '<i>to return the Church and churches of England to the religious splendour it saw in the Middle Ages'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ecclesiological Society held tremendous influence in the architectural and ecclesiastical worlds because of the success of this argument: '<i>that the corruption and ugliness of the 19th century could be escaped by the earnest attempt to recapture the piety and beauty of the Middle Ages'.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The society's "<i>ecclesiology</i>" was a concept about both architecture and worship, inspired by the association of the Gothic revival with reform movements (Anglo-Catholicism) within the Anglican Church. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Strawberry Hill Gothic</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Beginning as far back as Horace Walpole's Strawberry Hill, Gothic architecture was used to associate a building with certain attractive aspects of the Middle Ages.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For the early revivalists, this attractiveness was the <i>picturesque</i> quality of the architecture, however, the 'Middle Ages' had always had a strong association with <i>religious piety</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Anglican Church of the early 19th century was a languishing body, filled with corruption among the clergy and a lack of respect among the parishioners.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When, in 1833 Oxford Movement started a renewal of theology, ecclesiology, sacraments, and liturgical practices within the Anglican Church, all of the pieces were in place for the inception of the Ecclesiological Society.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Its founders, John Mason Neale, (see above) Alexander Hope, and Benjamin Webb, formed the society with the belief that by using '<i>Church reform</i>', in conjunction with piety of Gothic architecture, England could recapture the <i>religious perfection</i> of the Middle Ages.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Ecclesiologists earnestly believed (probably erroneously) that medieval men were "<i>more spiritually-minded and less worldly-minded</i>" than were those of the modern world, and that it was their duty to help return England to its former piety.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">A. W. N. Pugin</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although A. W. N. Pugin was, by any standard, a pioneer of the Gothic revival, and had aesthetic tastes very close to those of the Ecclesiological Society, he was unequivocally condemned for his <i>Roman Catholicism</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although many architects drew the ire of 'The Ecclesiologist', the editors did not hesitate to lavish praise on those select few whom they deemed worthy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Henry C. Carpenter's Church of St Paul, Bristol was widely praised for its correctness, as was S. W. Dawkes' Church of St Andrew, Wells Street, London.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The highest praise of all was given, in July 1842, to John Hayward for St Andrew's church, Exwick, Devon; this was proudly pronounced "t<i>he best specimen of modern church we have yet seen</i>".</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Society's favourite, however, was undoubtedly William Butterfield.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The architect was a man of tremendous religious conviction who refused to build for Roman Catholics.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">All Saints - Margaret Street - Butterfield</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">All Saints - Margaret Street - Butterfield</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite his frequent infringements of the <i>rules</i> set out by 'The Ecclesiologist', Butterfield retained a special status with the Society which culminated in its high praise of All Saints, Margaret Street.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Despite numerous violations of its principles, such as his use of brick, expressly forbidden by 'The Ecclesiologist,' the Society went so far as to bankroll Butterfield's church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the Ecclesiological Society claimed to be solely concerned with architecture, its criticism and praise of designers was often based as much on their personal convictions as it was on Gothic correctness.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The theological doctrines espoused by the Ecclesiological Society were somewhat extreme, and the society had many critics, both religious and architectural.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Members of the Low Anglican Church detested the "<i>popish</i>" and "<i>romanising</i>" tendencies they saw in the 'Ecclesiologist's' judgments.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Because the Society's doctrines were so closely related to the Anglo-Catholics, it also drew heavy criticism from the anti-Tractarianists.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Likewise, many architects despised the Society for its intolerance of creative freedom.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Self-righteous outbursts like the 'Ecclesiologist's' assertion that "<i>it is no sign of weakness to be content to copy acknowledged perfection: it is rather a sign of presumption to expect to rival it in any other way</i>" did little to win over its architectural enemies.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eventualy, the society had so successfully won over the architectural community that when the society disbanded in 1868, most felt that it had done everything it had set out to accomplish.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although a society of undergraduate students could hardly be expected to change the very nature of church building and worship across the world, the Ecclesiological Society came very near to doing so.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Incubated in Romantic notions of the Middle Ages, and the Anglo-Catholic reform movement, the Society sought to return England to its <i>medieval past</i>, and in its quest helped to rediscover the beauty of Gothic architecture, and to rejuvenate the Anglican Church.</span><br />
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Closely associated with the Ecclesiological movement was Percy Dearmer, (27 February 1867 – 29 May 1936) was an English priest and liturgist, best known as the author of 'The Parson's Handbook', a liturgical manual for Anglican, and in particular, Anglo-Catholic clergy.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer also had a strong influence on the music of the church and, with Ralph Vaughan Williams and Martin Shaw, is credited with the revival and spread of traditional and medieval English musical forms.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">Education and Ordination</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Percy Daermer - English Altar</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Percy Dearmer</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"></span><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Born in Kilburn, Middlesex, to an artistic family—his father, Thomas Dearmer, was an artist and drawing instructor.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer attended Streatham School and Westminster School (1880–1881), before moving on to a boarding school in Switzerland.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From 1886 to 1889 he read modern history at Christ Church, Oxford, receiving his Bachelor of Arts degree in 1890.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer was ordained to the diaconate in 1891, and to the priesthood in 1892 at Rochester Cathedral.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On 26 May of that year, Dearmer married 19 year old Jessie Mabel Prichard White (1872–1915), the daughter of Surgeon-Major William White.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She was a writer (known as Mabel Dearmer) of novels and plays.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">She died in 1915 while serving with an ambulance unit in Serbia.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They had two sons, both of whom served in World War I.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The elder, Geoffrey, lived to the age of 103, one of the oldest surviving war poets.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The younger, Christopher, died in 1915 of wounds received in battle.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">The 'Parson's Handbook' and Vicarage at St Mary's</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer's liturgical leanings were the product of a late Victorian debate among advocates of Ritualism in the Church of England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although theoretically in agreement about a return to more Catholic forms of worship, High Churchmen argued over whether these forms should be appropriated from post-Tridentine Roman Catholic practices, or revived from the traditions of a pre-Reformation "<i>English Use</i>" rite.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer's views fell very much on the side of the latter.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Active in the burgeoning Alcuin Club, Dearmer became the spokesman for a movement with the publication his most influential work, 'The Parson's Handbook'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In this book his intention was to establish sound 'Anglo-Catholic' liturgical practices in the <i>native English tradition,</i> which were also in full accord with the rites and rubrics of the 'Book of Common Prayer', and the canons that govern its use, and therefore safe from attack by Evangelicals who opposed such practices.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Percy Daermer - English Altar</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Such adherence to the letter was considered necessary in an environment where conservatives such as John Kensit had been leading demonstrations, interruptions of services and legal battles against practices of Ritualism and sacerdotalism, both of which they saw as "<i>popery</i>".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'The Parson's Handbook' is concerned with general principles of ritual and ceremonial, but the emphasis is squarely on the side of<i> art and beauty</i> in worship.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer states in the introduction that his goal is to help in "<i>remedying the lamentable confusion, lawlessness, and vulgarity which are conspicuous in the Church at this time</i>". What follows is an exhaustive delineation, sparing no detail, of the young priest's ideas on how liturgy can be conducted in a proper <i>Catholic and English </i>manner.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1901, after serving four curacies, Dearmer was appointed the third vicar of London church St Mary-the-Virgin, Primrose Hill, where he remained until 1915.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He used the church as a sort of practical laboratory for the principles he had outlined, revising the book several times during his tenure.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1912 Dearmer was instrumental in founding the 'Warham Guild' which was strongly influenced by the 'Sarum Rite' (see below).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Warham Guild' was a</span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> sort of practical arm of the Alcuin Club / Parson's Handbook movement, to carry out "</span><i style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the making of all the 'Ornaments of the Church and of the Ministers thereof' according to the standard of the Ornaments Rubric, and under fair conditions of labour</i><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">".</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Sarum Rite (more properly called the Use of Salisbury) was a variant ("use") of the Roman Rite widely used for the ordering of Christian public worship, including the Mass and the Divine Office. It was established by Saint Osmund, Bishop of Salisbury, England in the 11th century, and was originally the local form used in the Cathedral and Diocese of Salisbury. It later became prevalent throughout southern England and came to be used throughout most of England, Wales, Ireland and later Scotland, until the reign of Queen Mary I and King Philip. Although abandoned after the 16th century and the Protestant Reformation, it was also a notable influence on the pattern of Anglican liturgy represented in the 'Book of Common Prayer' (see above). Many of the ornaments and ceremonial practices associated with the Sarum rite - though not the full liturgy itself - were revived in the Anglican Communion in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, as part of the Anglo-Catholic Oxford Movement in the Church of England. Some Anglo-Catholics wanted to find a traditional formal liturgy that was characteristically "English" rather than "Roman."</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">They took advantage of the 'Ornaments Rubric' of 1559, which directed that English churches were to be furnished as they had been at the start of Edward VI's reign, that is, in Sarum fashion, with few concessions to Protestant practice. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">However, there was a tendency to read back Victorian centralizing tendencies into mediaeval texts, and so a rather rubrical spirit was applied to liturgical discoveries. Chief among the proponents of Sarum customs was the Anglican priest Percy Dearmer, who put these into practice (according to his own interpretation) at his parish of St Mary the Virgin, Primrose Hill, in London. He explained them at length in 'The Parson's Handbook'. This style of worship has been retained in some present-day Anglican churches and monastic institutions, where it is known as "English Use" (Dearmer's term) or "Prayer Book Catholicism".</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It is an indication of the founders' outlook, emphasis and commitment to the <i>English Use</i> that it was named for the last Archbishop of Canterbury before the break with Rome.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer served as lifelong head of the Warham Guild's advisory committee.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">Hymnology</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Working with renowned composer Ralph Vaughan Williams and as musical editor, Dearmer published 'The English Hymnal' in 1906.</span></div>
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He again worked with Vaughan Williams and Martin Shaw to produce 'Songs of Praise' (1926) and 'The Oxford Book of Carols' (1928).</div>
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These hymnals have been credited with reintroducing many elements of traditional and medieval English music into the Church of England, as well as carrying that influence well beyond the walls of the church.</div>
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In 1931 an enlarged edition of 'Songs of Praise' was published.</div>
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It is notable for the first appearance of the song 'Morning Has Broken', commissioned from noted children's author Eleanor Farjeon.</div>
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The song, later popularised by Cat Stevens, was written by Farjeon to be sung with the traditional Gaelic tune Bunessan.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'Songs of Praise' also contained Dearmer's version of 'A Great and Mighty Wonder', which mixed John Mason Neale's Greek translation and a translation of the German 'Es ist ein Ros entsprungen', from which the music to the hymn had come in 1906.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ffd966; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif; font-size: large;">Later Years</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For the fifteen years following his tenure as vicar at St Mary's, Dearmer served in no official ecclesiastical posts, preferring instead to focus on his writing.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">King's College London</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During World War I he served as chaplain to the British Red Cross ambulance unit in Serbia, where his wife died of enteric fever in 1915.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1916 he worked with the Young Men's Christian Association in France and, in 1916 and 1917, with the Mission of Help in India.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer married his second wife, Nancy Knowles, on August 19, 1916.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">English Usage and the English Altar</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They had two daughters and a son, Antony, who died in RAF service in 1943.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition to his writings, Dearmer served as professor of ecclesiastical art at King's College London from 1919 until his sudden death of coronary thrombosis on May 29, 1936.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His ashes are interred in the Great Cloister at Westminster Abbey.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer's great contribution to the liturgy of Anglo-Catholicism was his support for 'English Usage', and in particular the 'English Altar'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately, he also lived to see many of his ideas superseded by the turn of the century movement, often referred to as '<i>back to the Baroque</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">However, throughout England, there are still many churches that faithfully confirm to the principles of 'English Usage' and '</span><span style="font-family: 'Helvetica Neue', Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Parson's Handbook'.</span><span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">William Butterfield</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">William Butterfield - Chalice</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">William Butterfield</td></tr>
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William Butterfield (7 September 1814 - 23 February 1900) was a Gothic Revival architect and associated with the Oxford Movement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He is noted, unfortunately, for his excessive use of polychromy.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">William Butterfield was born in London in 1814.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His parents were strict non-conformists who ran a chemist's shop in the Strand.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was one of nine children and was educated at a local school.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the age of 16, he was apprenticed to Thomas Arber, a builder in Pimlico, who later became bankrupt.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He studied architecture under E. L. Blackburne (1833–1836).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From 1838 to 1839, he was an assistant to Harvey Eginton, an architect in Worcester, where he became articled.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Keble College Chapel - Oxford - Butterfield </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He established his own architectural practice at Lincoln's Inn Fields in 1840.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From 1842 Butterfield was involved with the Ecclesiological Society.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He contributed designs to the Society's journal, 'The Ecclesiologist'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His involvement influenced his architectural style.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He also drew religious inspiration from the <i>Oxford Movement,</i> and as such, he was very high church despite his non-conformist upbringing.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was a Gothic revival architect, and as such he <i>reinterpreted</i> the original Gothic style in <i>Victorian terms</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Butterfield received the RIBA Gold Medal in 1884.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He died in London in 1900, and was buried in a simple Gothic tomb in Tottenham Cemetery, Haringey, North London.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">George Edmund Street</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XQpMD7WDfTc/UrDcckz6bMI/AAAAAAAAVyw/_Ho2QQKhtWk/s1600/St+Peter's+Church+-++Bournemouth,+Dorset++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-XQpMD7WDfTc/UrDcckz6bMI/AAAAAAAAVyw/_Ho2QQKhtWk/s320/St+Peter's+Church+-++Bournemouth,+Dorset++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="215" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Peter's Church - Bournemouth - George Streeet</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">George Edmund Street</td></tr>
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George Edmund Street (20 June 1824 – 18 December 1881) was an English architect, born at Woodford in Essex.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Stylistically, Street was a leading practitioner of the <i>Victorian Gothic </i>revival.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Street was the third son of Thomas Street, a solicitor, by his second wife, Mary Anne Millington. He went to school at Mitcham in about 1830, and later to the Camberwell Collegiate School, which he left in 1839.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Fenestration - Internal View</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For a few months he worked in his father's business in Philpot Lane, but on his father's death he went to live with his mother and sister at Exeter.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There his thoughts first turned to architecture, and in 1841 his mother obtained a place for him as pupil in the office of Owen Browne Carter at Winchester.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Afterwards he worked for five years with George Gilbert Scott in London.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His first commission - undertaken while still working for Scott - was for the design of Biscovey Church, Cornwall.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1849 he set up in practice in an office of his own.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Streaky Bacon Style - St Peter's Church - Bournemouth</td></tr>
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Street was an active member of the 'Ecclesiological Society' (see above).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">From an early age he had been interested in the principles of Gothic architecture, and made frequent tours to study and draw Gothic architecture across Europe.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was an exceptional draughtsman, and in 1855 he published a very careful and well illustrated work on 'The Brick and Marble Architecture of Northern Italy', and in 1865 a book on 'The Gothic Architecture of Spain'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These works inspired the wider use of constructional polychromy by British architects, often, (and quite reasonably) mocked as "<i>the Streaky Bacon Style</i>".</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">St James the Less -Westminster - George Street</span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Street was an adherent of the Anglo-Catholic tendency of the Church of England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For many years he was a churchwarden of All Saints Margaret Street in London, built in the 1850s as a "<i>model church</i>" under the supervision of the 'Ecclesiological Society'.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1868 Street was made Diocesan Architect of Ripon, in addition to the similar posts which he already held in the dioceses of York and Oxford, and to which Winchester was subsequently added.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was also appointed Architect to York Minster at around this time, and, later on, to Salisbury and Carlisle Cathedrals.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Street's death, on 18 December 1881, was hastened by overwork and professional worries.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was buried on 29 December 1881 in the nave of Westminster Abbey.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Street was a vastly influential ecclesiastical architect, particularly in Anglo-Catholic circles.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unfortunately his style was heavy and uninspired, and his tenancy to use polychromatic stonework and tiling in some of his churches was unfortunate to say the least - (see William Butterfield above).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, Street's version of Gothic was not identifiable - it was eclectic - an amalgam of styles, most of which were not even English.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">William Burges</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">William Burges was an English architect and designer.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Among the greatest of the Victorian art-architects, he sought in his work to escape from both nineteenth-century industrialisation and the Neoclassical architectural style, and re-establish the architectural and social values of a utopian medieval England.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Burges stands within the tradition of the Gothic Revival, his works echoing those of the Pre-Raphaelites, and heralding those of the Arts and Crafts movement.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">In addition to architecture, Burges designed metalwork, sculpture, jewellery, furniture and stained glass.</span></div>
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Skelton-cum-Newby </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">'Art Applied to Industry', a series of lectures he gave to the Society of Arts in 1864, illustrates the breadth of his interests; the topics covered including glass, pottery, brass and iron, gold and silver, furniture, the weaver's art and external architectural decoration.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Despite early competition setbacks, Burges was sustained by his belief that 'Early French Gothic' provided the answer to the crisis of architectural style that beset mid-Victorian England, writing "<i>I was brought up in the thirteenth century belief and in that belief I intend to die</i>"; and in 1863, at the age of 35, he finally secured his first major commission, for Saint Fin Barre's Cathedral, Cork.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Although the cathedral is modest in size, it is very richly ornamented.</span></span></div>
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Saint Fin Barre's Cathedral - Cork.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">He drew designs for every one of the 1,260 sculptures that adorn the West Front and decorate the building inside and out.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">He sketched cartoons for the majority of the 74 stained glass windows.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">He also designed the mosaic pavement, the altar, the pulpit and the bishop's throne.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">The result is undoubtedly Burges's greatest work in ecclesiastical architecture, with an interior that is overwhelming and highly original</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Through his ability, by the careful leadership of his team, by total artistic control, and by vastly exceeding the intended budget of £15,000, Burges produced a building that in size is little more than a large parish church, but in impression is a cathedral becoming such a city.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">What is particularly puzzling, however, </span></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">considering Burges's obsession with the Gothic, is the fact that in 1870, Burges agreed to draw up an iconographic scheme of internal decoration for St Paul's Cathedral, unfinished since the death of Sir Christopher Wren, and produced a full-blown scheme of early Renaissance decoration for the interior, which he intended would eclipse that of St Peter's in Rome.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-_HSdH1qdIug/UrIDMsqi46I/AAAAAAAAV4A/qc6R3EXdjng/s1600/William+Burges+-+Chalice+Sisterhood+of+St.+Mary+and+St.+John+the+Evangelist+-+London+1869+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-_HSdH1qdIug/UrIDMsqi46I/AAAAAAAAV4A/qc6R3EXdjng/s200/William+Burges+-+Chalice+Sisterhood+of+St.+Mary+and+St.+John+the+Evangelist+-+London+1869+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="136" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Chalice Sisterhood of<br />
St. Mary and St. John</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">However, his plans were rather too creative for most Classicists and these artistic, and linked religious, controversies led to Burges's dismissal in 1877, with none of his plans undertaken.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Regardless, his buildings have been described as '</span><i style="line-height: 19.1875px;">more jewel than architecture</i><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">', and </span><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">his jewellery and metalwork outshone, in every respect, the work of his contemporaries.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">He began with religious artefacts (candlesticks, chalices, pectoral crosses) as individual commissions, or as part of the decorative scheme for buildings over which he had complete artistic control.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Examples include the chalices for St Michael's Church, Brighton, the statue of the Angel which stands above St Fin Barre's, and which was his personal gift to the cathedral, and the Dunedin Crozier.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Burges was a devout and devoted Anglo-Catholic who later converted to Roman Catholicism in 1874.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Burgess was sympathetic to the pre-Raphaelites, and produced some of the most imaginative and successful neo-Gothic works of the Victorian period.</span></span></div>
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-MhtSS-GG4WI/UrIeTUYQqvI/AAAAAAAAV6U/VWC2gAwxwzU/s1600/Ninian+Comper+reredos+at+SS+Mary+&+Giles,+Stony+Stratford+-+Ninian+Comper.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-MhtSS-GG4WI/UrIeTUYQqvI/AAAAAAAAV6U/VWC2gAwxwzU/s400/Ninian+Comper+reredos+at+SS+Mary+&+Giles,+Stony+Stratford+-+Ninian+Comper.png" height="155" width="400" /></a></div>
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<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-j7ukHMLVD7M/TrrzNlVsdOI/AAAAAAAAEBA/UgW6GnGCFOs/s1600/JOhn+Ninian+Comper+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Architecture+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-j7ukHMLVD7M/TrrzNlVsdOI/AAAAAAAAEBA/UgW6GnGCFOs/s200/JOhn+Ninian+Comper+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Architecture+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="200" width="161" /></a></div>
<a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-YMvG2-ZPNNk/Trr0bdIOd8I/AAAAAAAAEBI/kJR0i0N38cU/s1600/Ninian+Comper+-+Wimborne+St+Giles+Font+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Architecture+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; float: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: 1em;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-YMvG2-ZPNNk/Trr0bdIOd8I/AAAAAAAAEBI/kJR0i0N38cU/s320/Ninian+Comper+-+Wimborne+St+Giles+Font+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Architecture+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" height="320" width="166" /></a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">And so</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;"> we come to Sir John Ninian Comper (1864–1960).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">He was one of the last of the great Gothic Revival architects, noted for his churches and their furnishings.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">He is well known for his stained glass, his use of colour and his subtle integration of Classical and Gothic elements, which he described as unity by inclusion.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Comper was the eldest of five children of Ellen Taylor of Hull and the Reverend John Comper, Rector of St John's, Aberdeen (and later St Margaret of Scotland).</span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Sebastian</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">The lively and advanced Anglo-Catholicism amongst which the young Ninian was raised, naturally had a dominant influence on his life.</span></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">He was educated at Glenalmond School in Perthshire and attended a year at the Ruskin School of Art in Oxford.</span></span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-vnwrCrh_gOs/UrIgn_-e_4I/AAAAAAAAV6s/zWVF2MH-Xk4/s1600/Screen+-+Wymondham+-+Ninian+Comper+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-vnwrCrh_gOs/UrIgn_-e_4I/AAAAAAAAV6s/zWVF2MH-Xk4/s200/Screen+-+Wymondham+-+Ninian+Comper+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="146" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Reredos - Wymondham Abbey</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">On moving to London, he was articled to Charles Eamer Kempe, and later to George Frederick Bodley and Thomas Garner.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">In the course of seventy years Ninian Comper was the architect responsible for fifteen churches; he restored and decorated scores of others; and he designed vestments, banners and windows</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">One of his most significant design was the </span><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Reredos in Wymondham Abbey.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">English Altar - St Wilfrid's Cantley</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">There can hardly be a rural deanery in </span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">England or a Diocese in Scotland without some example of his sensitive and unmistakable workmanship.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZvKuAiWOZeY/UrIok1PYT_I/AAAAAAAAV7s/VtNxlX3Vdxc/s1600/All+Saints+Pastoral+Centre+-+Ciborium+-+John+Ninian+Comper+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZvKuAiWOZeY/UrIok1PYT_I/AAAAAAAAV7s/VtNxlX3Vdxc/s200/All+Saints+Pastoral+Centre+-+Ciborium+-+John+Ninian+Comper+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="156" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">All Saints - Classical Ciborium</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Comper's work can also to be found in churches of the Roman Communion, among them Downside Abbey.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">Comper's liturgical understanding of the purpose of a church was far in advance of any other architect of his time.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-GRmAVWuiFHg/UrImwlyah1I/AAAAAAAAV7Q/ZvwwLt3ViEw/s1600/High+Altar+in+Merton+College+-+Ninian+Comper+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-GRmAVWuiFHg/UrImwlyah1I/AAAAAAAAV7Q/ZvwwLt3ViEw/s200/High+Altar+in+Merton+College+-+Ninian+Comper+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">High Altar - Merton College</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">However, if he was primarily a decorator rather than an architect, his decorative art was never simply for art's sake, but for the sake of the function for which he firmly believed a church exists, namely "as a roof over an altar".</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">Believing this, he built from the altar outwards, personally designing every detail of the furnishings, even down to the candle sticks, which had to fit in with his design.</span></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-7H6ugsrd6Ok/UrIub0qehmI/AAAAAAAAV8Y/QREboJChGFc/s1600/Welsh+National+War+Memorial+-+Ninian+Comper+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-7H6ugsrd6Ok/UrIub0qehmI/AAAAAAAAV8Y/QREboJChGFc/s200/Welsh+National+War+Memorial+-+Ninian+Comper+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="165" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">While bitterly opposed to 'modernism', and strongly influenced by the 'Arts and Crafts Movement', he nevertheless anticipated, through his sophisticated designs, by many years, the changes that were to come.</span></span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">While Comper had a profound influence on the Anglo-Catholic perception of 'Christian Gothic', by finally creating a refined, sophisticated version of the Gothic revival, he was also pivotal in encouraging the realisation in the Anglo-Catholic community that Classicism and the Baroque were equally acceptable as forms of Christian, and more particularly Anglican architecture.</span></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; line-height: 19.1875px;">His Welsh National War Memorial, situated in Alexandra Gardens, Cardiff, exemplifies his superb handling of classical forms, while the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><span style="line-height: 19.1875px;">High Altar at Merton College, and the Classical Ciborium at All Saints demonstrated how such forms could be adapted for liturgical purposes.</span></span></div>
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<a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-aLKwqONUgHE/UMpqKTYwSOI/AAAAAAAAM-k/OYEMpeLAFSA/s1600/The+Society+of+St+Peter+and+St+Paul+-+Anglo+Catholic+High+Church+-+Anglo+Papalism+-+Roman+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; float: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-right: 1em; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-aLKwqONUgHE/UMpqKTYwSOI/AAAAAAAAM-k/OYEMpeLAFSA/s200/The+Society+of+St+Peter+and+St+Paul+-+Anglo+Catholic+High+Church+-+Anglo+Papalism+-+Roman+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" /></span></a><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ninian Comper made it abundantly evident that 'Classicism' and the Baroque were acceptable as forms of Christian, and more particularly Anglican architecture, and as the fin de siècle approached, Anglo-Catholics began to tire of Gothic revival.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The aesthetic and social concerns, typified by Ruskin and Pugin had ceased to be relevant to many in the Anglo-Catholic wing of the Anglican Church, as well as some in the Roman Catholic Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1884 Herbert Gribble designed Brompton Oratory (also known as the London Oratory) for Cardinal Newman (who had originally been a founding member of the Oxford Movement) which is now the second largest Catholic Church in London, with a capacity for more than 3,000 people.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'Back to the Baroque'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This church had a profound influence of liturgical sensibilities during the turn of the century and the period after the Great War. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Baroque of the Oratory was diametrically opposed to Percy Dearmer, and the 'Parson's Handbook', which held 'English Usage' and the 'English Altar' to be the only acceptable liturgical style for Anglo-Catholics, and for many who had become disillusioned with the so called 'British Museum Religion', the Baroque was seen as not only incredibly attractive, but also 'avant-garde'.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">MARTIN TRAVERS</span></div>
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The most influencial architect and designer of the Anglo-Catholic 'back to the Baroque' movement was Martin Travers.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lady Chapel Reredos - St Saviour's St Albans</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St. Mary Bourne Street</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Baroque is a period of artistic style that used exaggerated motion and clear, easily interpreted detail to produce drama, tension, exuberance, and grandeur in sculpture, painting, architecture, literature, dance, and music. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The style began around 1600 in Rome, Italy and spread to most of Europe.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The popularity and success of the Baroque style was encouraged by the <i>Roman Catholic Church</i>, which had decided at the time of the Council of Trent, in response to the Protestant Reformation, that the arts should communicate religious themes in direct and emotional involvement.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St. Mary Bourne Street</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In Baroque architecture, new emphasis was placed on bold massing, colonnades, domes, light-and-shade (chiaroscuro), 'painterly' colour effects, and the bold play of volume and void. In interiors, Baroque movement around and through a void informed monumental staircases that had no parallel in previous architecture. Baroque architecture and decoration is characterized by free and sculptural use of the classical orders and ornament, dynamic opposition and interpenetration of spaces, and the dramatic combined effects of architecture, sculpture, painting, and the decorative arts.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Dunstan with Holy Angels - Tabernacle </td></tr>
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Travers, born Howard Mantin Otho Travers, in Margate, Kent on 19 February 1886.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Helvetica Neue, Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He designed and constructed a number of spectacular Baroque reredoses for various Anglican churches, usually employing affordable materials such as plywood, white-wood papier-mache and embossed wallpaper to achieve the desired effect, which, regrettably, has meant that some of his work has not weathered well.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Our Lady Watching Over London</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Mary Bourne Street - London</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A reredos or raredos is an altarpiece, or a screen or decoration behind the altar in a church, usually depicting religious iconography or images. In French and sometimes in English, this is called a retable; in Spanish a retablo, etc. It can be made of stone, wood, metal, ivory, or a combination of materials. The images may be painted, carved, gilded, composed of mosaics, and/or embedded with niches for statues. Sometimes a tapestry is used, or other fabric such as silk or velvet, in which case it is referred to as a 'dosal'.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Reredos is derived through Middle English from the 14th century Anglo-Norman areredos, which in turn is from the Latin dorsum. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">The retable may have become part of the reredos when an altar was moved away from the wall. For altars that are still against the wall, the retable often sits on top of the altar, at the back, particularly when there is no reredos (a dossal curtain or something similar is used instead). </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A retable is a framed altarpiece, raised slightly above the back of the altar or communion table, on which are placed the cross, ceremonial candlesticks and other ornaments.</span><br />
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Famous examples of his work in London are the reredos in St Mary's church, Pimlico, and the remarkable Churrigueresque altarpiece in St Augustine's church, South Kensington.</div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Churrigueresque refers to a Spanish Baroque style of elaborate sculptural architectural ornament which emerged as a manner of stucco decoration in Spain in the late 17th century and was used up to about 1750, marked by extreme, expressive and florid decorative detailing.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St George - Pinner View - Harrow<br />
Art Deco Reredos </td></tr>
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English Altar</td></tr>
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However, while Travers is mainly remembered for his designs in the Baroque style, he was equally at home when producing 'gothic' designs, such as the perfect 'English altar' at Cricklade and, in addition, in many of his works he introduced Art Deco themes, which at the time were fashionable.<br />
As well as church furnishings he also designed much stained glass, and, as a draughtsman, is perhaps best known for his illustrations for the booklets and cards published by the Society of SS. Peter and Paul, a group supporting the Anglo-Papalist position.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Altar - Weston Chapel </td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Agatha Landport - Porstmouth<br />
Deco Baroque<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Augustine, Queen's Gate<br />
Deco Baroque<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Romsey Abbey - Gothic English Altar - Lent</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tunbridge Wells - St Barnabas - Gothic</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Silas the Martyr - Kentish Town<br />
Deco Baroque</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xGdVGq74sBY/UrNrGLJIUhI/AAAAAAAAWDY/ybp8zSH0YBA/s1600/St.+Mary,+Bourne+Street,+London+-+Martin+Travers+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xGdVGq74sBY/UrNrGLJIUhI/AAAAAAAAWDY/ybp8zSH0YBA/s320/St.+Mary,+Bourne+Street,+London+-+Martin+Travers+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="266" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">St Mary Bourne Street - London</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">Anglo-Papalism</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-aLKwqONUgHE/UMpqKTYwSOI/AAAAAAAAM-k/OYEMpeLAFSA/s1600/The+Society+of+St+Peter+and+St+Paul+-+Anglo+Catholic+High+Church+-+Anglo+Papalism+-+Roman+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-aLKwqONUgHE/UMpqKTYwSOI/AAAAAAAAM-k/OYEMpeLAFSA/s200/The+Society+of+St+Peter+and+St+Paul+-+Anglo+Catholic+High+Church+-+Anglo+Papalism+-+Roman+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="138" /></span></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">SS. Peter and Paul</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Martin Travers<br />
Neo-Baroque Altar</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Papalism is a subset of Anglo-Catholicism with adherents manifesting a particularly high degree of influence from, and even identification with, the Roman Catholic Church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center;">Anglo-Papalists regard the Pope as the earthly leader of the Christian Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center;">They generally accept in full <i>all</i> the Ecumenical Councils recognised by the Roman Catholic Church, including the Councils of Trent and the First Vatican Council, along with nearly all subsequent definitions of doctrine, including the bodily Assumption of Mary.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center;">Anglo-Papalists regard the Church of England as two provinces of the Western Catholic Church (the Province of Canterbury and the Province of York) forcibly severed from the rest by an act of the English Crown.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center;">Like many other Anglo-Catholics, Anglo-Papalists make use of the rosary, benediction and other Catholic devotions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center;">Some have regarded Thomas Cranmer (probably rightly) as a <i>heretic,</i> and his first Prayer Book as an expression of Zwinglian doctrine.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center;">They have actively worked for the reunion of the Church of England with the Holy See, as the logical objective of the Oxford Movement (see above).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The English Missal has been widely used by Anglican Papalists.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This volume, which is still in print, contains a form of the 'Tridentine Mass' (see above) in English (though with an alternative Latin translation of the Canon) interspersed with sections of the 'Book of Common Prayer'.</span></div>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-m4refI5bqrA/UrMtHS6nZII/AAAAAAAAWAU/zFVHLCsZhs8/s1600/Elevation+of+the+Host+-+Tridentine+Mass+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-m4refI5bqrA/UrMtHS6nZII/AAAAAAAAWAU/zFVHLCsZhs8/s200/Elevation+of+the+Host+-+Tridentine+Mass+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="155" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Elevation of the Host<br />
Tridentine Mass</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tridentine Mass</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; text-align: center;">The Tridentine Mass is the form of the Roman Rite Mass contained in the typical editions of the Roman Missal that were published from 1570 to 1962. It was the most widely celebrated Mass liturgy in the world until the introduction of the Mass of Paul VI in December 1969. In nearly every country it was celebrated exclusively in Latin. In Masses celebrated without the people, Latin Rite Catholic priests are free to use either the 1962 version of the 'Tridentine Liturgy'. These Masses "may be attended by faithful who, of their own free will, ask to be admitted." Permission to use the Tridentine form in parish Masses may be given by the parish priest.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center;">The Roman Catholic writer Fr. Adrian Fortescue's 'Ceremonies of the Roman Rite Described' served as a useful guide as to how to use the missal.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif; text-align: center;">At early celebrations, some Anglo-Papalist priests would use only the 'Missale Romanum' (Roman Missal), in Latin or in English translation.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; text-align: center;">The Roman Missal (Latin: Missale Romanum) is the liturgical book that contains the texts and rubrics for the celebration of the Mass in the Roman Rite of the Catholic Church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Papalists have established a variety of organisations, including the 'Catholic League and the Society for Promoting Catholic Unity' (SPCU), which published 'The Pilot'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They have also provided the leadership in many more general Anglo-Catholic organisations such as the 'Annunciation Group'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Other Anglo-Papalist groups include the 'Sodality of the Precious Blood'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Priests of the Sodality commit themselves to recitation of the 'Roman Liturgy of the Hours' and to the Latin Rite discipline of celibate chastity.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The now-defunct Society of SS Peter and Paul published the 'Anglican Missal'.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"><b>© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">LITERATURE</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Most Anglo-Catholic literature was theological or liturgical in nature, with little appeal to the general public.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Frederick William Rolfe</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Frederick William Rolfe, better known as Baron Corvo, and also calling himself 'Frederick William Serafino Austin Lewis Mary Rolfe', (July 22, 1860 – October 25, 1913), was an English writer, artist and photographer.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rolfe was born in Cheapside, London, the son of a piano manufacturer; he left school at the age of fourteen and became a teacher.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He taught briefly at The King's School, Grantham, where the then headmaster, Ernest Hardy, later Principal of Jesus College, Oxford, became a lifelong friend.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Originally an Anglo-catholic, he converted to Roman Catholicism in 1886, and was confirmed by Cardinal Manning.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">With his conversion came a strongly felt vocation to priesthood, which persisted throughout his life, despite being constantly frustrated and never realised.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1887 he was sponsored to train at St Mary's College, Oscott near Birmingham and in 1889 was a student at the Scots College in Rome, but was thrown out by both due to his inability to concentrate on priestly studies and his erratic behaviour.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At this stage he entered the circle of the Duchess Sforza Cesarini, who, he claimed, adopted him as a grandson and gave him the use of the title of "Baron Corvo".</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He often abbreviated his own name to "Fr. Rolfe" (an ambiguous usage, suggesting he was the priest he had hoped to become).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rolfe spent most of his life as a freelance writer, mainly in England but eventually in Venice.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He lived in the era before the welfare state, and relied on benefactors for support, but he had an argumentative nature and had a tendency to fall out spectacularly with most of the people who tried to help him and offer him room and board.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eventually, out of money and out of luck, he died in Venice from a stroke on October 25, 1913. He was buried on the Isola di San Michele, Venice.</span></div>
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Frederick Rolfe was entirely comfortable with his homosexuality.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Early in his life he wrote a fair amount of idealistic but mawkish poetry about boy martyrs and the like, and these and his Toto stories contain pederastic elements.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As he matured, Rolfe’s settled sexual preference was for late adolescents.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tito Biondi at Lake Nemi<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Those of whom it is either speculated or surmised that they had sexual relations with Rolfe – Aubrey Thurstans, Sholto Johnstone Douglas, John 'Markoleone', Ermenegildo Vianello and the other Venetian gondoliers - were all young men between the ages of sixteen and twenty-one (with the exception of Douglas, who was considerably older).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The idealised young men in his fiction were of a similar age.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1904, soon after his ordination as a Roman Catholic priest, the convert Robert Hugh Benson formed a chaste but passionate friendship with Rolfe.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For two years this relationship involved letters "<i>not only weekly, but at times daily, and of an intimate character, exhaustingly charged with emotion</i>."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">All letters were subsequently destroyed, probably by Benson’s brother.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rolfe sought to characterise the relationships in his fiction as examples of '<i>Greek love</i>' between an older man and an<i> ephebe</i>, and thus endow them with the sanction of the ancient Hellenic tradition familiar to all Edwardians with a classical education.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><span style="margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-and-homosexuality.html" target="_blank"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-ZpUBF78D1LU/UrOVDEssk3I/AAAAAAAAWNU/54vR_tWFLVU/s200/Cardinal+John+Henry+Newman+-+Homosexuality+and+Anglo+Catholicism+-+Roberto+Ferri+-+'San+Sebastiano'+-+Religious+Art+-+Great+Art+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="200" width="191" /></a></span></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2013/12/anglo-catholicism-and-homosexuality.html" target="_blank">ANGLO-CATHOLICISM and HOMOSXUALITY</a></span></td></tr>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">'Hadrian the Seventh'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rolfe wrote 'Hadrian the Seventh' 1904.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Rolfe's best-known work, this novel of extreme wish-fulfillment developed out of an article he wrote on the Papal Conclave to elect the successor to Pope Leo XIII.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The prologue introduces us to George Arthur Rose (a transparent double for Rolfe himself): a failed candidate for the priesthood denied his vocation by the machinations and bungling of the Roman Catholic ecclesiastical machinery, now living alone with his yellow cat.<br />Rose is visited by two prominent churchmen, one a Cardinal Archbishop.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The two propose to right the wrongs done to him, ordain him a priest, and take him to Rome where the Conclave to elect the new Pope has reached deadlock.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When he arrives in Rome he finds that the Cardinals have been inspired, divinely or otherwise, to offer him the Papacy. He accepts, and since the only previous English Pope was Adrian (or Hadrian) IV, he takes the name Hadrian VII.<br />The novel develops with this unconventional, chain-smoking Englishman peremptorily reforming the Church, and the early 20th-century world, against inevitable opposition from the established Roman Catholic hierarchy, rewarding his friends and trouncing his enemies.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Generally he gets his way by charm or doggedness, and of course by being much cleverer than all those round him; but his short reign is brought to an end when he is assassinated by a Pope-hating Scotsman, or possibly Ulsterman, and the world breathes a sigh of relief.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Arthur Evelyn St. John Waugh</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Arthur Evelyn St. John Waugh (28 October 1903 – 10 April 1966), known as Evelyn Waugh, was an English writer of novels, biographies and travel books.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was also a prolific journalist and reviewer.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His best-known works include his early satires 'Decline and Fall' (1928) and 'A Handful of Dust' (1934), his novel 'Brideshead Revisited' (1945) and his trilogy of Second World War novels collectively known as 'Sword of Honour' (1952–61).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Waugh is widely recognised as one of the great prose stylists of the 20th century.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The son of a publisher, Waugh was educated at Lancing and Hertford College, Oxford, and worked briefly as a schoolmaster before becoming a full-time writer.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a young man, he acquired many fashionable and aristocratic friends, and developed a taste for country house society that never left him.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the 1930s he travelled extensively, often as a special newspaper correspondent; he was reporting from Abyssinia at the time of the 1935 Italian invasion.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He served in the British armed forces throughout the Second World War, first in the Royal Marines and later in the Royal Horse Guards.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">All these experiences, and the wide range of people he encountered, were used in Waugh's fiction, generally to humorous effect; even his own mental breakdown in the early 1950s, brought about by misuse of drugs, was fictionalised.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Waugh had converted to Roman Catholicism in 1930, after the failure of his first marriage.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His traditionalist stance led him to oppose strongly all attempts to reform the Church; the changes brought about in the wake of the Second Vatican Council of 1962–65, particularly the introduction of the vernacular Mass, greatly disturbed him.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This blow, together with a growing dislike for the welfare state culture of the postwar world and a decline in his health, darkened his final years, although he continued to write.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">To the public at large he generally displayed a mask of indifference, but he was capable of great kindness to those he considered his friends, many of whom remained devoted to him throughout his life.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">After his death in 1966, he acquired a new following through film and television versions of his work, such as 'Brideshead Revisited' in 1981.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Thomas Stearns Eliot </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Thomas Stearns Eliot</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thomas Stearns Eliot OM (26 September 1888 – 4 January 1965) was an essayist, publisher, playwright, literary and social critic, ardent Anglo-Catholic, and "<i>one of the twentieth century's major poets</i>."</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Born in St. Louis, Missouri in the United States, he moved to the United Kingdom in 1914 (at age 25) and was naturalised as a British subject in 1927 at age 39.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eliot attracted widespread attention for his poem 'The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock' (1915), which is seen as a masterpiece of the Modernist movement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was followed by some of the best-known poems in the English language, including 'The Waste Land' (1922), 'The Hollow Men' (1925), 'Ash Wednesday' (1930) and 'Four Quartets' (1945).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He is also known for his seven plays, particularly 'Murder in the Cathedral' (1935).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1948, "f<i>or his outstanding, pioneer contribution to present-day poetry</i>".</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px;"><b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b><br />
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Anglo-Catholics and the Revision of the Book of Common Prayer</span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Yet, under the ‘Travers baroque’, in a lime-washed whiteness,</i></span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The fiddle-back vestments a-glitter with morning rays,</i></span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>Our Lady’s image, in multiple-candled brightness,</i></span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>The bells and banners – those were the waking days</i></span></div>
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<span style="color: #f1c232; font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;"><i>When Faith was taught and fanned to a 'golden blaze'.</i></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif;">John Betjeman</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the 1920s, the Anglo-Catholic movement was in the ascendant within the Church of England.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Historians have used grandiose phrases such as 'golden age'; or 'triumphal period' to describe the achievements of the era.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Those bishops of a Centre-High inclination had begun to favour the more temperate 'Prayer Book </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic' or 'English Catholic' liturgical style as an ideal expression of worship for a via media Church.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'English Use' methods of Percy Dearmer and the Alcuin Club were gradually becoming acceptable in key churches and cathedrals.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">High Anglican hymnody was now standard in non-partisan parishes due to the popularity of the 'English Hymnal' (1906).</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'six points' of the 'English Church Union', the main Anglo-Catholic body, were almost accomplished as the party benefited from the boom of sacramental yearning caused by the Great War, during which prayers for the dead, reservation for the sick and daily communion had become </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">permissible.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Reservation on the Altar - Anglican Baroque Sanctury</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">During the Liturgy of the Eucharist the elements of bread and wine are considered, in some branches of Christian practice, to have been transubstantiated into the Body and Blood of Jesus Christ.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In many Christian churches some portion of the consecrated elements is set aside and reserved after the reception of the Holy Eucharist, referred to as the 'reserved sacrament'.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The reserved sacrament is usually stored in a <i>tabernacle</i>, a locked cabinet made of precious materials and usually located on, above or near the high altar.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Common reasons for reserving the sacrament include for it to be taken to the ill or housebound, for the devotional practice of Eucharistic Adoration, for viaticum for the dying, and so that Communion may still be administered if a priest is unavailable to celebrate the Eucharist.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following the Great War, bishops Winnington-Ingram of London, Wakefield of Birmingham and Ridgeway of Chichester had tentatively begun to sanction permanent or 'perpetual' reservation in some parishes.</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The gains of the era were sealed with the appointment of W. H. Frere, a moderate Anglo-Catholic, to the episcopal bench in 1923.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Walter Howard Frere, CR (1863–1938) was a co-founder of an Anglican religious order, the Community of the Resurrection and later bishop of Truro (1923–1935). He was twice Superior of the order 1902–1913 and 1916–1922 and returned to it after resigning his see of Truro. He was a noted liturgical and historical scholar; he was also a High Churchman and a supporter of catholic ideas. He was a major figure in the proposed revision of the Church of England Book of Common Prayer in 1928 which was later rejected by Parliament and was responsible for the service book for the Guild of the Servants of the Sanctuary.</span><br />
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Following the tribulations and incarcerations of the nineteenth century, the acceptable face of the movement was finally developing a </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">central role within the Anglican establishment.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Catholicism was losing its label as a 'fringe' or 'protest' movement' and fast developing opportunities to become a major factional power-broker in the Church.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the Anglo-Catholic party was <i>pre-eminent </i>during the period, the historiography of the movement is remarkably inadequate.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While the early Oxford Movement and late nineteenth century ritualism have been the subject of extensive studies, inter-war Anglo-</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholicism - the <i>nadir </i>of Tractarianism - remains obscure.</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In many ways, the Anglo-Catholic movement, despite its diversity, seemed remarkably united in the 1920s.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The experiences of legal prosecution in the nineteenth century had given Anglo-Catholics a <i>siege mentality</i>, and a desire to demonstrate unity in the face of adversity.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This gave Anglo-Catholicism a considerable measure of unity as many preferred to see the grouping as a <i>progressive movement</i>, with a vanguard, a centre and a rearguard, rather than a</span></div>
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</div>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">splintered party.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Notably, the Anglo-Catholic Congress, although dominated by </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">advanced members, was attended by Catholic Churchmen of all degrees and grades of practice and belief, however, despite their considerable advances, difficulties remained for the Anglo-Catholic party.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Disunity and factionalism had been an ongoing problem during its years of success.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the triumphant Congress jamborees gave some impression of a cohesive movement, internal tensions had beleaguered the party for some time.</span></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Catholicism was made up of three broad factions by the 1920s: English Catholic, Western Catholic and Anglo-</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Papalist.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During the early twentieth century, a rivalry had developed between the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">moderate, High Church Anglo-Catholics and Ultramontane, continental-minded priests.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-D4oaYvudPk0/Uqw9mtedsGI/AAAAAAAAVV4/FnUnJDiDPb4/s1600/Claude+Beaufort+Moss+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-D4oaYvudPk0/Uqw9mtedsGI/AAAAAAAAVV4/FnUnJDiDPb4/s1600/Claude+Beaufort+Moss+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="135" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Claude Beaufort Moss</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The movement began to polarise between the English Catholic and Western Catholic schools. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Claude Beaufort Moss, a prominent English Catholic, wrote that '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>this divergence was always latent at the Anglo-Catholic Congresses, and in spite </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>of all efforts to keep it out of sight, it often comes to the surface</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This developing atmosphere of factionalism was the context in which the Anglo-Catholic movement responded to the proposals to revise the 'Book of Common Prayer'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The '<i>revision project</i>', as it was known, was an attempt to make a conclusive settlement with Anglo-Catholics and limit the movement within set liturgical boundaries.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Uggy3t5_zg/Uqw-UdalCNI/AAAAAAAAVWA/LMXtzY-_Wl8/s1600/Arthur+Headlam+Bishop+of+Gloucester+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-8Uggy3t5_zg/Uqw-UdalCNI/AAAAAAAAVWA/LMXtzY-_Wl8/s1600/Arthur+Headlam+Bishop+of+Gloucester+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="136" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Arthur Headlam - Bishop of Gloucester</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Arthur Headlam, Bishop of Gloucester, wrote to a liberal Evangelical <i>'you must realise that for the Anglo-Catholics the situation created is more difficult than for any other section. Those of other sections have not had their individual freedom interfered with at all, but the Anglo-Catholics are perfectly aware that the whole aim of revision is to prevent some of the extremer ones from </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>doing things which they wish to do</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Centre-High bishops were offering a </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">compromise to Anglo-Catholics, agreeing to allow moderate practices, but intending to regulate <i>extreme ritual.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus, the revision controversy brought to the surface the issues of authority and identity for the movement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The bishops proposals required Anglo-Catholicism to face up to its own ambiguity within the Church, and to choose between party principle and episcopal loyalty.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Crucially, the controversy would underline the factionalism within the party during the 1920s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There are various signals indicating the extent of factionalism within the Anglo-Catholic movement in the early twentieth century.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The competition between the English Catholic and Western Catholic schools was most visible at the altar, the battleground at which the various ideologies and practices of Anglo-Catholicism collided.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZT2Zef9Om-c/Uqw_lB3e00I/AAAAAAAAVWU/Mi3sq5LgkkQ/s1600/St.+Mary+Bourne+Street+-+B&W+-+London+-+Martin+Travers+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-ZT2Zef9Om-c/Uqw_lB3e00I/AAAAAAAAVWU/Mi3sq5LgkkQ/s1600/St.+Mary+Bourne+Street+-+B&W+-+London+-+Martin+Travers+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="166" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Baroque Altar - Martin Travers</td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q27G7sc6ap0/Uqw_CV3WLnI/AAAAAAAAVWM/lQw5ivDi4_g/s1600/McWilliams+St+Albans+Abington+-+English+Altar+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Q27G7sc6ap0/Uqw_CV3WLnI/AAAAAAAAVWM/lQw5ivDi4_g/s1600/McWilliams+St+Albans+Abington+-+English+Altar+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="146" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">'English altar' </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The modest, antiquarian and traditional '<i>English altar</i>' stood in stark </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">contrast to the extravagant baroque and Italianate designs of continental-minded Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Architecture also signified the various degrees of Anglo-Catholic churchman-ship.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-m4XLuFZjFHs/UqxA7JqTfPI/AAAAAAAAVWg/YHoFFnyTwo0/s1600/William+Butterfield+-+Keble+College+chapel+interior+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-m4XLuFZjFHs/UqxA7JqTfPI/AAAAAAAAVWg/YHoFFnyTwo0/s1600/William+Butterfield+-+Keble+College+chapel+interior+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="150" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">William Butterfield - Keble College Chapel</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">High Churchmen favoured the <i>Gothic style</i> inspired by William Butterfield and Somers Clarke, while advanced Catholics built in the Baroque and R</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">ococo fashions, following the designs of Maurice Childs.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-xijfAXCKp8U/UqxCjAah_MI/AAAAAAAAVWs/nuCf4h0MKLo/s1600/English+Altar+-+British+Museum+Religion+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="205" src="https://2.bp.blogspot.com/-xijfAXCKp8U/UqxCjAah_MI/AAAAAAAAVWs/nuCf4h0MKLo/s1600/English+Altar+-+British+Museum+Religion+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">English Altar - 'British Museum Religion'</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The competitiveness between the schools was also reflected in their rhetoric.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English Catholics called their advanced brethren '<i>Romanizers</i>' and '<i>un-English'</i>, while in return, their conservative associates labelled them </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">as 'Protestants in vestments', and dubbed their traditional taste 'British Museum religion'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There had also been, of course, a '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>liberal Catholic</i>' school within the Anglo-Catholic party, since the publication of 'Lux Mundi' in 1889, however, liberal Catholics did not have their own distinguishable liturgical agenda, and a scattering of these Churchmen was to be found amongst both the English and Western Catholic traditions.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-nu98KuGJ5G0/UqxE7YlhZdI/AAAAAAAAVW4/Ss_yoyvZvrA/s1600/Bishop+Charles+Gore+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-nu98KuGJ5G0/UqxE7YlhZdI/AAAAAAAAVW4/Ss_yoyvZvrA/s1600/Bishop+Charles+Gore+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="145" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Bishop of Oxford - Charles Gore</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Lux Mundi: A series of Studies in the Religion of the Incarnation is a collection of 12 essays from liberal Anglo-Catholic theologians and edited by the future Bishop of Oxford, Charles Gore, in 1889.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Many of the contributors included the word 'Incarnation, in the titles of their articles, i.e. R.C Moberley, E.R.Talbot, J.R. Illingworth ('Incarnation and Development'),R.L.Ottley ('Incarnation and Christian Ethics'), Francis Paget ('Incarnation and Sacraments'), Walter Lock ('Incarnation, union of human and divine'). Other contributors were Arthur Lyttelton, Aubrey Moore and W. J. H. Campion.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6FKTrucwXsE/UqxGvlJ0aiI/AAAAAAAAVXE/MeMqjyd4Mng/s1600/Wilfred+Knox+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6FKTrucwXsE/UqxGvlJ0aiI/AAAAAAAAVXE/MeMqjyd4Mng/s1600/Wilfred+Knox+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="162" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Wilfred Lawrence Knox</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For example, on the English side, Charles Gore, the father of the liberal Catholic school, was a keen supporter of moderate High Church worship, while on the Western side, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Wilfred Lawrence Knox, the Cambridge theologian, preferred a continental (Baroque) style.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Historically, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Catholicism was self defined chiefly by <i>liturgical</i> rather than theological tastes.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Hence, it is not surprising that the boundaries of demarcation between the various Catholic factions were defined by differences in ritual style.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English Catholicism was based on a <i>national expression</i> of Church, loyalty to the 'Prayer Book' (also know as the 'Book of Common Prayer'), and obedience to episcopal authority.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cOcLbTVC3pA/UqxH5Hi0H5I/AAAAAAAAVXM/ol0fuCMjK2c/s1600/Thomas+Cranmer+-+1549+Prayer+Book+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-cOcLbTVC3pA/UqxH5Hi0H5I/AAAAAAAAVXM/ol0fuCMjK2c/s1600/Thomas+Cranmer+-+1549+Prayer+Book+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="153" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Cranmer's 1549 Prayer Book</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The aim was to reflect <i>English tradition</i> by following the practices and regulations set out in Cranmer's 1549 </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Prayer Book (see above). </span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dCArGocDwN4/UqxJFY4ehmI/AAAAAAAAVXc/TvyhdAoIPoM/s1600/Alcuin+Club+Liturgy+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-dCArGocDwN4/UqxJFY4ehmI/AAAAAAAAVXc/TvyhdAoIPoM/s1600/Alcuin+Club+Liturgy+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="201" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Alcuin Club Liturgy</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'<i>The substitution of foreign ornaments</i>', argued Tract One by the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alcuin Club, '<i>is mischievous from the countenance it gives to those who profess to </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Church of Rome. </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>And we do not want these things, our own are bette</i>r'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Publications such as 'The Parson's Handbook' (1899) popularised this idea that the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Church of England had its own <i>unique </i>liturgical method and ceremonial style: the '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>English Usage</i>' and '<i>English Altar</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">One of the standard features that identifies a church sanctuary as “<i>English Use</i>” is the appearance of a particular feature called a riddel post. These are two posts that stand at the north and south horns of the altar and have curtains (the “riddels” from whence the name comes) that extend back to the dorsal, the curtain mounted on the back wall right above the altar. A dossal may be a flat panel with a central large motif or it may be a gathered width of textile. Both types are suspended by a strong iron rod which is held in place by rod holders secured in the stone or wood. </span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Like many of the features that adorn the English/Sarum Uses, this wasn’t actually a distinctively English characteristic. Instead that which is “English” tends to be that which is pre-Baroque.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The methods and ideals of English Catholicism were expounded and promoted by various organisations and individuals.</span><br />
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-LdLSTev8Kys/Uqyf1_KjnWI/AAAAAAAAVYw/7WdC5F_Zgos/s1600/Percy+Dearmer+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-LdLSTev8Kys/Uqyf1_KjnWI/AAAAAAAAVYw/7WdC5F_Zgos/s1600/Percy+Dearmer+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="103" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Percy Dearmer</td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wuPKm66jcys/UqyewhM_-VI/AAAAAAAAVYo/VJ28kF_L09U/s1600/Walter+Frere+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-wuPKm66jcys/UqyewhM_-VI/AAAAAAAAVYo/VJ28kF_L09U/s1600/Walter+Frere+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="150" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Walter Frere </td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The most prominent group was the '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alcuin Club', an institution devoted to liturgical research, which published various '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">tracts' on High Church ritual by respectable Churchmen such as Percy Dearmer, Walter Frere and T. A. Lacy from 1897 onwards.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The following century saw the English Catholic crusade advanced by the 'Warham Guild', a collective of eminent liturgologists including Frere and F. E. Brightman, and from the 1920s, by the 'Anglican Society', a group which aimed to promote both the '<i>study and appreciation </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">of the English Use</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">', and the beliefs and traditions of the Catholic Faith, </span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'in strict accordance with the principles laid down by the Book of Common Prayer</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many of the leaders and figureheads were elderly by this point, their influence having emerged around the turn of the century.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-W3ihzR6cq2c/Uqygv3ywUCI/AAAAAAAAVY4/BrtSHpQfqLQ/s1600/Ralph+Vaughan+Williams+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-W3ihzR6cq2c/Uqygv3ywUCI/AAAAAAAAVY4/BrtSHpQfqLQ/s1600/Ralph+Vaughan+Williams+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="128" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Ralph Vaughan Williams</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The patriarch of English Catholicism was Percy Dearmer, a leading light in the 'Alcuin Club' from the 1890s, the author of 'The Parson's Handbook' (1899) and 'The English Liturgy' (1903), both practical guides </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to Catholic worship in conformity with the Prayer Book, and co-author, with Ralph </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Vaughan Williams, of the English Hymnal, an exceptionally popular collection of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">High Anglican hymnody published in 1906.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-HxRRQHlC3FM/Uqyjdo4AmQI/AAAAAAAAVZE/b-VLnbwMXQg/s1600/St+Mary-the-Virgin+Primrose+Hill,+London+-+Percy+Dearmer+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-HxRRQHlC3FM/Uqyjdo4AmQI/AAAAAAAAVZE/b-VLnbwMXQg/s1600/St+Mary-the-Virgin+Primrose+Hill,+London+-+Percy+Dearmer+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="257" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St Mary the Virgin - Primrose Hill - London</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer's church, St Mary the Virgin, Primrose Hill, London, became a model for English Catholics, and continued to be a centre for the movement under his successor, A. S. Duncan- Jones, who was also editor of the High Church 'Guardian' newspaper.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The church of St Mary-the-Virgin, Primrose Hill in North London was opened in 1872. From the beginning, the style of services followed the then recently established Anglo-Catholic tradition within the Church of England.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Wo71xBtFzUE/UqykNw3rVpI/AAAAAAAAVZM/EQwqjE7wFPs/s1600/dearmer+eucharist+procession+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-Wo71xBtFzUE/UqykNw3rVpI/AAAAAAAAVZM/EQwqjE7wFPs/s1600/dearmer+eucharist+procession+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="233" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">'Alcuin Club' Eucharistic Procession</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Known for his acute aversion to Rome, Dearmer undoubtedly had a <i>moderating</i> influence on</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Catholicism during the period.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alongside Dearmer, the other giant of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English Catholicism was the ex-Bishop of Oxford and President of the 'Alcuin Club' for many years, Charles Gore.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">His liberal theological disposition, and fierce loyalty to Church authority, which led him to recommend the use of legal sanction against recalcitrant priests, had made Gore a target of criticism for many Catholics by the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1920s.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Ix5HNVAS6Tg/Uqysj_YhdVI/AAAAAAAAVZ0/Rk0uBavso-8/s1600/+Claude+Beaufort+Moss+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-Ix5HNVAS6Tg/Uqysj_YhdVI/AAAAAAAAVZ0/Rk0uBavso-8/s1600/+Claude+Beaufort+Moss+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="163" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Claude Beaufort Moss</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-nu98KuGJ5G0/UqxE7YlhZdI/AAAAAAAAVW8/qSQJ18l7tmo/s1600/Bishop+Charles+Gore+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-nu98KuGJ5G0/UqxE7YlhZdI/AAAAAAAAVW8/qSQJ18l7tmo/s1600/Bishop+Charles+Gore+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="145" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Charles Gore</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Like Dearmer, Gore would continue to be a respected, if distant, voice </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">during the revision controversy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A third leader of the English Catholics, who emerged to prominence during the 1920s immediately before the revision crisis erupted, was Claude Beaufort Moss, an academic based at Christ Church, Oxford.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moss was a leading light in the Anglican Society and the author of 'Anglo-Catholicism at the Crossroads' (1923), a publication that presented his own belligerent convictions that the Catholic movement must show loyalty to the, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Church and English Use, and turn away from Roman and continental practices.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Other individuals of standing in the faction included the newly appointed bishop, W. H. Frere, the intellectual J. N. Figgis, vice-Principal of Cuddesdon theological college E. J. Bicknell and convocational Proctors, Athelstan Riley and T. A. Lacy.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-UdQdTBSzRdw/Uqy_2mlMtyI/AAAAAAAAVaI/bJcVdTrNX0c/s1600/John+Neville+Figgis+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-UdQdTBSzRdw/Uqy_2mlMtyI/AAAAAAAAVaI/bJcVdTrNX0c/s1600/John+Neville+Figgis+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="161" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">John Neville Figgis </td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">John Neville Figgis (1866 - 1919) was an historian, political philosopher and Anglican priest and monk. Educated at Brighton College and St Catharine's College, Cambridge, he was a student of Lord Acton at Cambridge, and editor of much of Acton's work. He entered the Community of the Resurrection at Mirfield in 1896.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">John Athelstan Laurie Riley (10 August 1858—17 Nov 1945) was an English hymn writer and hymn translator.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Riley was born in Paddington, London, and attended Pembroke College, Oxford where obtained his BA 1881 and MA 1883. Active in the Anglo-Catholic wing of the Church of England, he energised the development of the English Hymnal and was chairman of its editorial board.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the movement had a number of ageing statesmen, the English Catholics lacked a central, dominant and dynamic leader during the period.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This deficiency would influence the fortunes of the faction during the 1920s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The churchman-ship of English Catholicism revolved around key ideals and concerns regarding the relationship between Catholic belief and the Anglican Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The movement was based on the concept of a national English Church, and the conviction that, although the 'Ecclesia Anglicana' was part of the Catholic </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Church, it had something distinctive and unique to offer to the whole.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">espousal of the national Church was logically followed by a support for '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Englishness</i>' in ritual.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English Catholics argued for a traditional <i>English</i> expression of worship, and frowned upon the historical influences of Geneva and Rome.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">˜<i>We should strive to show the world the full beauty of Catholic adoration'</i>, argued E. J. Bicknell in 1928, 'and that can best be done not by a blind imitation of Italian methods at their worst, but by working along English lines and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">by expressing ourselves in ways that are at once both natural and beautiful'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglican worship should be both native and the national, following the forms and traditions of the pre-modern Church in England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This ideology would leave English Catholicism open to the charge - which was not without substance - that it was a<i> </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>nationalistic</i> form of religion.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The ideology of English Catholicism had three basic tenets.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Firstly, it professed an intense loyalty towards the institution and authority of the Church of England.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Community of the Resurrection - Mirfield</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-uwL4m9X2YEE/UqzFFv7kuXI/AAAAAAAAVaY/Nu9Y_hI6PdE/s1600/Community+of+the+Resurrection+-+arial+view+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-uwL4m9X2YEE/UqzFFv7kuXI/AAAAAAAAVaY/Nu9Y_hI6PdE/s1600/Community+of+the+Resurrection+-+arial+view+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="198" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Community of the Resurrection - Mirfield</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This belief was promulgated in the work of J. N. Figgis, a member of the 'Community of the Resurrection' at Mirfield, who argued, '<i>It is to the value of English Catholicism, to the special contribution of our Church to the life of the great Church as a whole, and to the glorious changes of the future, that we need at </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>this time to be loyal and devoted</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English Catholics believed that the Church </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">should be comprehensive and tolerant, truly representing the diversity of belief and practice amongst the English people.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Figgis argued that this stood in contrast to Roman Catholicism, where the '<i>autocratic claims of the curia</i>' outlawed both individual reason and the dynamic of diversity which allowed different units within an institution to flourish.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus, significantly, the English Catholic movement </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">found an ally in Centre-High Churchmen, who were its patrons as Catholic expressions of worship enjoyed success within Anglicanism. Secondly, this deferential attitude towards the Church meant that English Catholics demonstrated stubborn obedience towards the Book of Common Prayer.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The liturgy of 1549, and the ornaments rubric in particular, were seen as a plumb line for correct English </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">practice.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-_eM356J_t5w/UqzHnwAnVoI/AAAAAAAAVa0/gx51Xwmxwwo/s1600/Coronation+of+King+George+V+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-_eM356J_t5w/UqzHnwAnVoI/AAAAAAAAVa0/gx51Xwmxwwo/s1600/Coronation+of+King+George+V+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="220" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Coronation of King George V</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BLHqfqvUQhs/UqzGjCUQ94I/AAAAAAAAVas/ejD9sC4qdS0/s1600/Percy+Dearmer+2+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BLHqfqvUQhs/UqzGjCUQ94I/AAAAAAAAVas/ejD9sC4qdS0/s1600/Percy+Dearmer+2+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="159" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Percy Dearmer</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Percy Dearmer expressed this principle in 'The Present Opportunity', </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">his influential introduction to an 'Alcuin Club' book of liturgical illustrations by C. O. Skilbeck, praising the use of English Catholic practices at the Coronation of King George V.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He argued, '<i>When the Prayer Book is obeyed, as it was at the </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Coronation, the Ornaments Rubric fixes our ceremonial as well as our ritual at a point before the abounding degradation of a rococo period set in</i>'.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-P6Pne3wL1BE/UqzJWgiEWfI/AAAAAAAAVbA/JLDWSrkNxjg/s1600/English+Vestments+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-P6Pne3wL1BE/UqzJWgiEWfI/AAAAAAAAVbA/JLDWSrkNxjg/s1600/English+Vestments+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="193" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Full 'English' Vestments</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English Catholics made every effort to comply with the traditional practices of the English Church as described in the 1549 book.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This meant the use of <i>full </i>vestments, and the various items believed to constitute the English Altar.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">One noticeable </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">convention was the utilising of a <i>hanging pyx</i> to hold the reserved sacrament.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The hanging pyx is a suspended form of tabernacle, or place of reservation in other words, for the Blessed Sacrament.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-GYtuJAmuUpU/UqpITMQ8cmI/AAAAAAAAVUk/UJihfKng4v8/s1600/Anglo+Catholic+Hanging+Pyx+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-GYtuJAmuUpU/UqpITMQ8cmI/AAAAAAAAVUk/UJihfKng4v8/s200/Anglo+Catholic+Hanging+Pyx+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="120" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Hanging Pyx</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">High Church understanding and expression of liturgy was, therefore, both traditional and legalistic, compliant with the '<i>ancien</i>t' practices of England and resistant towards the <i>Ultramontane</i> fashions of Rome.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Ultramontanism is a religious philosophy within the Catholic Church that places strong emphasis on the prerogatives and powers of the Pope. In particular, ultramontanism may consist in asserting the superiority of Papal authority over the authority of local temporal or spiritual hierarchies (including the local bishop).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thirdly, this preference for <i>English distinctiveness</i> meant that English Catholicism was characteristically <i>anti-Roman</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Anglican Society, according to E. J. Bicknell, existed to protest against </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the idea that English Churchmen 'had to go to Rome to find the best worship'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Furthermore, they maintained that there were limits to the comprehensiveness of the Church of England that ruled out certain continental developments from the counter-Reformation and onwards.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-D4oaYvudPk0/Uqw9mtedsGI/AAAAAAAAVV8/9xAEJrRZLtg/s1600/Claude+Beaufort+Moss+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-D4oaYvudPk0/Uqw9mtedsGI/AAAAAAAAVV8/9xAEJrRZLtg/s1600/Claude+Beaufort+Moss+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="135" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Claude Beaufort Moss</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'No society', argued a strident C. B. Moss, '<i>can be in a healthy state as long as it contains any large section of members who refuse </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>to obey its authority exercised by its proper officers</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus, this brand of Anglo-</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholicism promulgated a parochial, insular and peculiarly English form of religion.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The ideology and practices of Western Catholics stood in sharp contrast to their moderate, antiquarian relations.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This newer school of 'Western Use' Churchmen were wary of the idea of a pre-Reformation English Church, instead supporting Roman ritualistic developments, and continental practices.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">W. L Knox</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'<i>The task of converting the English people to the Catholic religion</i>', declared W. L Knox, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">cannot be accomplished without complete revision of the English liturgy in a Catholic sense, and the general introduction of the full system of Catholic devotion, as it has been developed by Western Catholicism since the Reformation</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Western Catholic expression combated the sobrieties of English and Gothic architecture and paraphernalia of moderate Anglo-Catholics with Baroque and Rococo designs and the accoutrements of Catholic Europe.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Society of SS Peter and Paul<br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Western Catholic movement began to gain momentum from 1911 when the 'Society of SS Peter and Paul (SSPP)' was set up to counteract the publications of the 'Alcuin Club'. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Adrian Fortescue</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Ritualists such as Maurice Child, a former disciple of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dearmer, and Adrian Fortescue, began publishing Roman alternatives to 'The </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Parson's Handbook'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Adrian Henry Timothy Knottesford Fortescue (14 January 1874 – 11 February 1923) was an English Roman Catholic priest who was an influential liturgist, artist, calligrapher, composer, polyglot, amateur photographer, Byzantine scholar, and adventurer.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Federation of Catholic Priests' was formed in 1917 as a body for advanced Catholics, which by 1927 had around 1,400 members.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1920s the Federation was having a considerable impact on the practices of Anglo- Catholic clergymen, with 827 of its members reserving the sacrament and 282 practising extra-liturgical devotions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Among the various Anglican religious </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">communities, the 'Society of the Holy Cross' was the one most dominated by </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Western Catholics.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The faction was chiefly influenced by two personalities in the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1920s: the senescent Viscount Halifax, a veteran of the ritualist prosecutions of the preceding century, and Darwell Stone, the unofficial Anglo-Catholic leader in convocation.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Viscount Halifax</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Halifax had been the lay leader of the ritual movement since his first appointment as President of the 'English Church Union', the umbrella society for all Anglo-Catholics, in 1868.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He held this prestigious post sporadically until he was </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">re-elected President during the revision controversy in 1927.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A paradoxical figure, Halifax was a member of the English establishment, yet he would remain moderately rebellious throughout his ecclesiastical life.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Charles Lindley Wood, 2nd Viscount Halifax (7 June 1839 – 19 January 1934) was a British ecumenist who served as president of the English Church Union from 1868 to 1919, and from 1927 to 1934.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darwell Stone was perhaps the most influential advanced Anglo-Catholic of the period.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Darwell Stone</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Pusey House - Oxford</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A distinguished theologian and the Principal of Pusey House, Oxford, he wielded enormous influence in convocation, the 'English Church Union', the 'Federation of Catholic </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Priests' and the 'Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Stone would both assert </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">and bolster this dominance during the revision controversy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alongside these two venerable figures, a number of academics, of which the Anglo-Catholic party had no shortage during the 1920s, possessed prominent leadership roles in the Western Catholic faction.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">William Knox was a New Testament scholar at the Oratory of the Good Shepherd, Cambridge, and a leading light in the SSPP.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This wayward offspring of E. A. Knox, the firebrand anti-Catholic Bishop of Manchester (whose </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">other son, Ronald, seceded to Rome in 1917), was a staunch advocate of Ultramontane worship.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Western Catholic cause was supported in Oxford by N. P. Williams, Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity, who set about defining Western Catholicism, described by him as '<i>old Catholicism</i>' or '<i>northern Catholicism</i>', in a number of publications.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Other influential individuals within </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the movement included Lionel Thornton, a theologian among the more advanced </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">members of the 'Community of the Resurrection', and Canon W. Sparrow Simpson, the chaplain of St Mary's, Ilford.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Community of the Resurrection (CR) is an Anglican religious community for men in England. It is based in Mirfield, West Yorkshire and has 22 members as of March 2012. The community reflects Anglicanism in its broad nature and is strongly engaged in the life of the Anglican Communion. It also has a long tradition of ecumenical outlook and practice. The community has fostered 11 bishops in different parts of the Anglican Communion. Both of the two founders became bishops in the Church of England. Charles Gore was Bishop of Worcester (1902-05), Birmingham (1905-11) and Oxford (1911-19), and Walter Howard Frere became Bishop of Truro (1923-35). Timothy Rees became Bishop of Llandaff (1931-39) in Wales, and Thomas Hannay became Bishop of Argyll and The Isles in Scotland (1942-62).</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Darwell Stone</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In contrast to the English Catholic grouping, the advanced school benefited from stronger leadership during the 1920s, particularly through Darwell Stone, whose authority was evident across the whole web of the Western Catholic institutions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The logic of Western Catholicism rested on the view that the Church of England shared a common bond with the Roman Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The western Church, according to one writer, was psychologically, geographically and historically closer to Anglo-Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Advanced Catholics opposed the moderate notion of English distinctiveness in worship.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">According to one Western Catholic, Kenneth Ingram, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the editor of the 'Green Quarterly' magazine, their churchman-ship centred on the idea that '<i>the isolation of the English Church from the rest of the Western Church as caused by the Reformation, may be inevitable but is neither desirable nor </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>normal'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus, the idea of English uniqueness was of little importance compared </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to a wider loyalty to the practices and traditions of the Western Church.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Norman Powell Williams</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Norman Powell Williams</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"> argued that the word '</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">' was secondary to the term '</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">' there was only a national English Church due to historical circumstances.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Western Catholics desired eventual reunion with Rome, although contrary to some misunderstandings in the current historiography, they were not Anglo-Papal, as most could not agree with the claims of the papacy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An example of a typical Western Catholic was A. F. Webling.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a young curate in Hallam, Sheffield, Webling worked under an advanced priest whose consistent liturgical disobedience resulted in the diocesan refusing to visit the parish.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Webling's churchman-ship was strongly Catholic, as he accepted the mass, practised confession, and encouraged extra-liturgical devotions to the sacrament, yet he would not secede to Rome because of the issue of <i>authority</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Such advanced Catholics were trying to revive Catholic religion, with a Roman preconception, within the Church of England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This Rome-ward orientation meant that Western Catholics had a flexible interpretation of Anglican comprehensiveness.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darwell Stone explained this concept of the Church at convocation in 1923, maintaining that '<i>It was intended by those in power [at the time of the Reformation] that there should remain within the Church of England people who, on the one hand, were almost puritans, provided that they would conform in worship, and, on the other hand, people who were almost Roman Catholics, provided that they would abstain from asserting any doctrine about the Pope which was inconsistent with the supremacy of the </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>Crown</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was certainly a broader interpretation of the via media than that </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">held by the Centre-High grouping.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The churchman-ship of Western Catholics had a tendency to put party principles before Anglican authority.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">W. L. Knox admitted '<i>It is possible that I shall be accused of a lack of loyalty to the distinctive position of the Church of England. But if in being loyal to the Catholic Church I am disloyal to the Church of England, I fear that I shall bear the reproach with equanimity'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A spiky and pertinacious attitude towards episcopal authority was evident amongst some members of the movement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alan Wilkinson suggests that advanced Anglo-Catholics responded to W. H. Frere's episcopal preferment as members of the left wing of the Labour Party have traditionally reacted when one of their own is appointed to a cabinet post: his promotion proved him unsound </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">insubordinate spirit was certainly evident in A. F. Webling, who remained within </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the Church because of the '<i>natural human delight in struggle and effort</i>', admitting that '<i>what one can get easily and respectably does not appeal</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The loyalty of Western Catholics to counter-Reformation principles was at the root of the problem </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">of <i>ritualistic lawlessness</i> within Anglicanism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">What Alan Wilkinson has described as a '<i>self-deception about authority</i>' pervaded the movement as some priests '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">worked' the 1662 Prayer Book to fit their liturgical agenda. </span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Arthur Foley Winnington-Ingram</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Furthermore, it was common, especially in the London diocese of '<i>uncle</i>' Arthur Winnington-Ingram, for advanced clergy to evade the regulation of the bishop.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Arthur Foley Winnington-Ingram KCVO PC (26 January 1858 – 26 May 1946) was Bishop of London from 1901 to 1939.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This ecclesiastical side-stepping was an open secret, with one commentator recognising '<i>the tone of ironical submissiveness in which some Anglo-Catholic priest coerces their titular </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>superior is among the more amusing features of a situation in which the comic so </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>often and so paradoxically intrudes</i>'.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Continuous Reservation</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The bishops hoped that in revising the Prayer Book, such confusion and <i>duplicity</i> would be replaced </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">by peace and order.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the 1920s, in their attempt to re-assume the 'arrested development' of the Anglican ritual, Western Catholics had turned their focus to the issue of <i>continuous reservation (see above)</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Significantly, in 1923, an ECU report on Prayer Book revision, largely devised by Norman Powell Williams and Darwell Stone, recommended <i>permanent reservation</i> on an <i>unrestricted basis</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This view was held partly with the aim of pressing forward the sacramental mission of Anglo-Catholicism by making frequent communion more practical in the parishes, however, Western Catholics also demanded <i>continuous reservation</i> to enable priests to practise Ultramontane-style extra-liturgical devotions (Benediction).</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5D2cJRgtzX4/UquD7MDeGPI/AAAAAAAAVVA/7izjdaBfNGM/s1600/Adoration+of+the+Blessed+Sacrament+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-5D2cJRgtzX4/UquD7MDeGPI/AAAAAAAAVVA/7izjdaBfNGM/s1600/Adoration+of+the+Blessed+Sacrament+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="320" width="241" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Adoration of the Blessed Sacrament</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6gWNEfPTfBU/UquC5JJ-L7I/AAAAAAAAVU4/M22SULyA4LQ/s1600/Benediction+of+the+Blessed+Sacrament+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-6gWNEfPTfBU/UquC5JJ-L7I/AAAAAAAAVU4/M22SULyA4LQ/s1600/Benediction+of+the+Blessed+Sacrament+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="178" width="200" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Benediction</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Benediction of the Blessed Sacrament, commonly referred to as Benediction and known in France as Salut and in Germany as Segen. It is also the custom of some high-church Anglican churches to hold this service. It consists in the singing of certain hymns, or litanies, or canticles, before the Blessed Sacrament, which is exposed upon the altar in a monstrance, and is surrounded with candles. At the end, the priest or deacon, his shoulders enveloped in a humeral veil, takes the monstrance into his hands, and with it makes the sign of the cross in silence over the kneeling congregation. Benediction is often employed as a conclusion to other services, e.g. Vespers, Compline, the Stations of the Cross, etc., but it is also still more generally treated as a rite complete in itself.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although this was a significant departure from Tractarian tradition, it did, in the opinion of some, follow logically from the Puseyite interpretation of the<i> real presence</i> of Christ at eucharist.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JBidL0nT2c8/Uqze9pMSsDI/AAAAAAAAVcY/1Fljn9dq6Sg/s1600/Elevation+od+the+Host+-+Martin+Travers+-+Real+Presence+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JBidL0nT2c8/Uqze9pMSsDI/AAAAAAAAVcY/1Fljn9dq6Sg/s1600/Elevation+od+the+Host+-+Martin+Travers+-+Real+Presence+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="320" width="248" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Elevation of the Host - Martin Travers</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Real Presence is a term used in various Christian traditions to express belief that in the Eucharist, Jesus Christ is <i>really presen</i>t in what was previously just bread and wine, and not merely present in symbol, a figure of speech (metaphorically, common amongst the Radical Reformers and their descendants), or by his power (dynamically), or by the grace of the Holy Spirit in the individual believer partaking of the species (pneumatically, common amongst Reformed believers).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many priests had experienced the beauty and benefit of these practices while serving in France and Belgium during the war.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A series of publications appeared during the late 1910s </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">arguing in favour of adoration of the sacrament, and by the 1920s at least </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">priests were providing these public services in their parishes.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Articles of Religion as published in the Book of Common Prayer of the Church of England in 1662 can be said to fairly unequivocally condemn these practices. For example, Article 25 states that, '<i>The Sacraments were not ordained of Christ to be gazed upon, or to be carried about, but that we should duly use them'.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The events of 1927 </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">would indicate the measure to which these 'extra-liturgical' services of devotion were becoming synonymous with Western Catholic worship.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The third faction within the Anglo-Catholic party consisted of the Anglo-Papalists.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This ideology was the least influential amongst Anglican Catholics, and was embraced by only a minority on the extreme wing.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Some writers, such as W. S. F. Pickering, have suggested that advanced Catholics were 'Anglo-Papists' <i>en-masse</i>, but this ignores the fact that only a few advanced institutions and organisations advocated immediate corporate </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">reunion under terms given by Rome.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The limited numerical force of the faction </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">was indicated by its largest demonstration of strength: a manifesto for corporate reunion in 1933 which only 760 priests signed.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the mindset of these extreme men, the Reformation had been an <i>unmitigated disaster</i>, severing the English </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Church from the Holy Catholic Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Reformation had been an act of <i>schism </i>and <i>apostasy</i> which needed to be undone.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1M7GHBADZjg/UqeNU3iPifI/AAAAAAAAVHQ/apshl9F3ISw/s1600/Caldey+Island+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1M7GHBADZjg/UqeNU3iPifI/AAAAAAAAVHQ/apshl9F3ISw/s1600/Caldey+Island+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="143" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Caldey Island</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Unsurprisingly, the final destination for many in these circles, such as the Benedictines of Caldey Island, was usually Rome.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As the meticulously designed Italianate architecture of the Benedictine monastery of Caldey Island emblematised, the quintessence of the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">faction was a complete devotion to the religious idioms of the Catholic continent.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-AFMXC-6zLEk/UqzhnX2WHFI/AAAAAAAAVck/DxczzwI_-L8/s1600/St+Saviour'+-+Hoxton+-+London+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-AFMXC-6zLEk/UqzhnX2WHFI/AAAAAAAAVck/DxczzwI_-L8/s1600/St+Saviour'+-+Hoxton+-+London+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="320" width="252" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St Saviour's - Hoxton</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Papalist eucharistic services, such as those at St Saviour's, Hoxton, London, tended to use Latin.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, Anglo-Papalists practised <i>devotions to the Blessed Virgin,</i> and saw the Pope as head of the Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">By the 1920s, the leading Anglo-Papalist institution was the 'Catholic League', which produced a magazine called 'The Messenger'.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-wWcqdxyNHGA/UquGo95dlYI/AAAAAAAAVVM/Cmlt14MjcCY/s1600/The+Holy+House+-+Walsingham+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-wWcqdxyNHGA/UquGo95dlYI/AAAAAAAAVVM/Cmlt14MjcCY/s1600/The+Holy+House+-+Walsingham+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="228" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">'The Holy House'<br />
Shrine of Our Lady at Walsingham</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the 'Catholic League' and some prominent individuals, such as A. Hope Patten, the priest at the 'Shrine of Our Lady at Walsingham', were </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">involved in 1927-28, the numerical weakness of the faction meant it was of limited importance during the controversy.</span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Catholic League is an organisation dedicated to the reconciliation of the same two communions. It is associated with the Anglo-Papalist wing of Anglo-Catholicism.</span></div>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">A member of the Catholic Societies of the Church of England, the League supports the Week of Prayer for Christian Unity (formerly the Octave of Christian Unity), the work of the International Anglican-Roman Catholic Commission on Unity and Mission, and in the past, its predecessor, the Anglican-Roman Catholic International Commission. Associated with the Catholic League is the Sodality of the Precious Blood, a confraternity of male priests in the Church of England who pray the Liturgy of the Hours and practice celibacy. The League was founded in 1913 with 97 foundation members on the initiative of the Revd Richard Langford-James and the Revd Henry Fynes-Clinton. Its predecessors were the Association for the Promotion of the Unity of Christendom (established 1857) and the Guild of the Love of God (founded 1911).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The years before the climax of the revision project witnessed two main trends in the Anglo-Catholic party in relation to these factions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Firstly, during the mid-</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1920s, there was undoubtedly an increase in tension between these two main schools of thought. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The post-war rise of advanced Catholicism was met with increasing apprehension from the English Catholic leadership.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The potential for confrontation had always been close to the surface of the party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Colin Dunlop, an 'Alcuin Club' member, had suggested '<i>there is no phrase which is more productive of controversy amongst the more Catholic-minded section of English Churchmen than is the phrase 'English Use'. Its mention will stir up in some wrath and contempt, in some amusement, in others fanatical approval. Few remain</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>indifferent'</i>.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BLHqfqvUQhs/UqzGjCUQ94I/AAAAAAAAVaw/K7iCeqCD6rQ/s1600/Percy+Dearmer+2+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-BLHqfqvUQhs/UqzGjCUQ94I/AAAAAAAAVaw/K7iCeqCD6rQ/s1600/Percy+Dearmer+2+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" height="200" width="159" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Percy Dearmer</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1921, as a counter-blast to Percy Dearmer's 'The Present </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Opportunity', the SSPP entitled an introduction to a collection of illustrations 'The </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Lost Opportunity', claiming that the antiquarian traditions of 'British Museum </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">religion' had never prospered, and that the English revival had failed, however, by the mid-1920s, this tension had reached new levels as English Catholics reacted to the rise in public services of devotions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 'The Anglo-Catholic Movement Today' (1925), Charles Gore launched a bitter tirade against the 'half-Romanism' of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">advanced Catholics, arguing that their devotional practices were disobedient to the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Church and <i>loathe-some</i> to the laity.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Benediction</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the same year an 'Alcuin Club' publication by D. L. Murray set out the historical and theological case against <i>public devotions (Benediction)</i>, arguing that the reserved sacrament had not been a perpetual centre for worship in </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the primitive Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The concern over services of adoration was accentuated </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">because the publication of the revision proposals was approaching, and English Catholics were aware that the bishops would probably <i>outlaw</i> such devotions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus, adoration was seen as an issue that could drive a wedge between the Anglo- Catholic party and the Church authorities.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Contemporaries noticed a marked increase in strain within the party in the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1920s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the English side, C. B. Moss suggested that intra-party unity could no longer hold, and that a decision about future direction must be made.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Correspondingly, Western Catholics voiced frustration at the <i>authoritarian </i>tone of their moderate brethren.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">During 1925 and 1926 the 'Green Quarterly' published a steady stream of articles against Moss and Gore.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An allegory entitled 'The Anglican Crisis on the Isle of Alpha', which told the story of ecclesiastical tensions between '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">High Alpheans' and 'continentalists', painted the High Church side as being </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">nationalistic and traditionalist in outlook.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Another article stereotyped English Catholics as 'alarmists', who were paranoid about any foreign influence on the English Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Some were predicting a<i> final split</i> in the party over liturgical revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There were now two factions, both with highly developed systems of thought and practice, with divergent views regarding Church authority and Catholic </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">identity.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The second trend to influence Anglo-Catholicism before the revision controversy was the rise in supremacy of Western Catholicism across the party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Anglo-Catholic movement contained a number of institutions which carried no overt faction 'label'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'English Church Union', the largest Anglo-Catholic body, representing both the laity and the clergy, seems to have become more influenced </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">by Western Catholic ideology during the early twentieth century, despite the diversity of Catholic opinion within its ranks.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The recommendations for Prayer Book revision set out in its 'Green Book' in 1922 were alarmingly progressive, especially the assertion that <i>permanent reservation,</i> on an unrestricted basis, should </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">be allowed.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The fact that the 'Alcuin Club' opted to publish its own separate '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Orange Book' suggests it felt its opinions were not represented by the ECU.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-wShLeAGC7jc/UqzkN_lXDVI/AAAAAAAAVc4/Dk6dDhZzJZE/s1600/Alfred+Kelly+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-wShLeAGC7jc/UqzkN_lXDVI/AAAAAAAAVc4/Dk6dDhZzJZE/s1600/Alfred+Kelly+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" height="200" width="167" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Alfred Kelly</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Some members of the ECU, such as Alfred Kelly of the 'Society of the Sacred Mission' at Kelham, believed that an advanced 'ruling clique' had gained power.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The other </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">main 'no party label' organisation was the Anglo-Catholic Congress, which held an </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">event every three or four years from 1920.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the Congress had always been under the influence of Maurice Child and the SSPP, it attempted to limit its partisanship and so appeal to a broad spectrum of Catholics, however, the 1923 </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Congress, chaired by a provocative figure in the shape of Bishop Frank Weston of Zanzibar, seemed to move ideologically towards the advanced wing of the movement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Weston encouraged members with the slogan '<i>fight for your tabernacles</i>', a contentious proclamation considering the disagreements within the party over devotions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moderate Catholics, such as Reginald Tribe, Director of the Society of the Sacred Mission, believed that it was wrong 'to make this the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">touchstone of the Anglo-Catholic movement'.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Bishop Weston</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">At the same conference, Bishop </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Weston, 'a man who loved the dramatic gesture', surprised the faithful by suggesting a telegram to the pope saying '<i>16000 Anglo-Catholics, in Congress assembled, offer respectful greetings to the Holy Father, humbly praying that the day of peace may quickly break</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Frank Weston OBE (13 September 1871–2 November 1924) was the Anglican Bishop of Zanzibar from 1907[1] until his death 16 years later. A staunch Anglo-Catholic, he was chaplain then principal of St Andrew's College before being ordained to the episcopate.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many English Catholics were shocked by this </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">development.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Walter Frere made a public protest at Weston's action and some left </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the Congress in disgust.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In a sense, 'Zanzibargate' was symbolic of the English-Roman division within Anglo-Catholicism during the period, and the rising influence of the advanced wing.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was in this context and atmosphere that the bishops' proposals of 1927 were received by the party.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The aim of the bishops in revising the Prayer Book was twofold: to provide both peace and comprehensiveness, and order and regulation.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Undoubtedly, the changes made, such as provision for reservation for the sick, continuous </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">reservation with a licence, the alternative communion service, and a clarification of the legitimacy of vestments, were all in a distinctively Catholic direction.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The book was generous in ethos; however, in the interests of restoring Church order, it made plain clear limits regarding liturgical practice.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Central Council of Catholic </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Societies' noted in early 1927 that the following would offend some Catholics: the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Eastern Orthodox position of the invocation in the alternative canon, reservation '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>for the sick only</i>', the need for a bishop's licence to practise continuous </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">reservation, and the prohibition of corporate adoration.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St Athanasius</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Other changes, such as the treatment of the 'Athanasian Creed', the omission of references to the Flood and the crossing of the Red Sea, and a 'softening down' of the Baptismal and Marriage Offices, were perceived to be in a modernist direction, and offended the conservative sensibilities of some advanced Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Athanasian Creed, or Quicunque Vult (also Quicumque Vult), is a Christian statement of belief focused on Trinitarian doctrine and Christology. The Latin name of the creed, Quicumque vult, is taken from the opening words, "Whosoever wishes". The creed has been used by Christian churches since the sixth century.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Randall Thomas Davidson</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Archbishop Davidson had made plain to Anglo-Catholic leaders that the bishops had no intention of letting </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the proposed rubrics be disregarded, and that while they were '<i>not going to be bullies</i>' they did '<i>mean business</i>', and intend to press for obedience to the Revised Book.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Randall Thomas Davidson, 1st Baron Davidson of Lambeth GCVO PC (7 April 1848 – 25 May 1930) was an Anglican bishop of Scottish origin who served as Archbishop of Canterbury from 1903 to 1928. Davidson resigned after Prayer Book revision failed to pass the House of Commons in 1928.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus revision would divide Anglo-Catholicism, and emphasise the fault </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">line between loyalty-driven English Catholics and principle-led Western Catholics.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Francis Underhill</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The former, such as Francis Underhill, Warden of Liddon House, emphasised the considerable gains in the proposals, arguing that it would be wise to '<i>accept what has been offered to use, while pressing in every legitimate and constitutional way for the further liberty we desire</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Francis Underhill (16 May 1878 - 24 January 1943. was an Anglican bishop. Underhill was educated at Shrewsbury School and Exeter College, Oxford. He was ordained in 1901 and was a curate at St Paul's Swindon and St Thomas the Martyr, Oxford and then Vicar of St Alban’s Birmingham until 1925. He was the first secretary of the Federation of Catholic Priests and from 1925 until 1932 he was Warden of Liddon House, and priest in charge of the Grosvenor Chapel, Mayfair when he was appointed Dean of Rochester, a position he held until his consecration to the episcopate as Bishop of Bath and Wells in 1937. An author, he was a cousin of Evelyn Underhill.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The latter, such as R. W. Bunnse, a member of the 'Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament', saw revision as '<i>a weapon of war</i>' </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">forged against advanced Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The proposals of 1927 had a polarising effect on Anglo-Catholicism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This was most noticeable in the ECU, the most comprehensive Catholic body.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Council was prevented from taking an official stance on revision because of the 'deep cleavage of opinion' amongst its members.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Some were undecided or opposed to the measure, while others were 'r<i>eadily accepting the Prayer Book as a </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">considerable gain</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The disunity within the ECU was also apparent at local level.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While some ECU groups, such as the Winchester and Hursley branch, passed pro-revision resolutions, others, such as Devon Central and Stratton Deanery branches, opposed the proposals.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Just as the ECU remained impartial during 1927 because of the duality of Anglo-Catholic opinion, Sydney Dark, editor of the 'Church Times', felt obliged to keep his paper neutral throughout that year.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A similar division was evident in convocation, where despite the beseeching of the bishops, though forty Anglo-Catholic members voted for revision, twelve still opposed it.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The revision controversy went to the core of the Anglo-Catholic movement, compelling it to assess its own identity within Anglicanism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the English Catholic side of the party, there was an attitude of <i>acceptance</i> towards the revision proposals.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The main leaders of the faction, such as Dearmer, Gore, Moss and Bicknell, led a chorus of approval for the liturgical changes.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The support from moderates was clearly expressed in a memorial of 1,300 clergy in</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">September 1927.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The organisers of the memorial were mostly academics with an </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English Catholic background, such as Maurice Relton, Professor of Theology, King's College, London; Bicknell, vice-Principal, Cuddesdon College, Oxford; </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">S. R. P. Mousdale, Principal of St Chad's, Durham; and E. Gordon Selwyn, editor of the moderate Catholic journal, 'Theology'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The memorial gave birth to a pro-revision group, known simply as 'the 1,300', which met to discuss policy during </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">and after the controversy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The group had an English Catholic ethos, claiming that the Anglican Church '<i>had its own contribution to make to Catholicism</i>' and promoting loyalty to the bishops and their book.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The revision proposals were also championed by the 'Anglican Society', which supported the book as an embodiment of the Anglican via media, and launched a newspaper in 1928 known as the 'English Catholic'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Similarly, revision was backed by moderate Anglo-</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic institutions, most notably the 'Community of the Resurrection' at Mirfield, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">where an avalanche of Western Catholic pamphlets '<i>became wearisome rather than convincing</i>' and '<i>most of the Brethren welcomed the news that the new book has been passed by a large majority</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Western Catholic wing of Anglo-Catholicism, however, seemed almost </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">uniformly opposed to the revision measure.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Its leadership, including Halifax, Stone, Knox, Sparrow Simpson, and C. P. Shaw, Superior General of the 'Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament', all rejected the bishops' offer.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A number of these luminaries contributed to a tome on the controversy, edited by Darwell Stone, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">refuting the content and censuring the process of revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The most influential </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">anti-revision response came from the 'Federation of Catholic Priests', which passed a resolution of '1,400 priests' (although the figure was closer to 1,200) in opposition.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Controversially, the Federation ignored objections regarding the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">recognition of the role of the State in Church affairs by writing to the Ecclesiastical </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Commission of Parliament, warning that '<i>some provisions of the deposited book, notably the rubrics concerning reservation, will be conscientiously resisted by </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">many clergymen and laity at all costs</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Council General of the Confraternity </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">of the Blessed Sacrament' also issued a statement against revision at its annual meeting in May 1927, although, significantly, the body did not allow a general vote amongst its membership.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the extreme fringe of the party, unsurprisingly, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglo-Papalists were adverse to the bishops' proposals.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Catholic League passed a resolution against revision in June 1927.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Our Lady of Walsingham</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Likewise, priests attending the annual pilgrimage at the Shrine of Our Lady, Walsingham, passed a resolution against the book.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A. Hope Patten, parish priest at Walsingham and the most </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">prominent Anglo-Papalist during the period, was in contact with Darwell Stone </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">during the crisis to discuss strategy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It seems likely that Anglo-Papalists goaded their less advanced brothers into greater opposition towards revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There were, of course, exceptions to the rule of English Catholic support for and Western Catholic protest against revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the English Catholic side, Athelstan Riley, the venerated nineteenth century lay leader, saw the proposals as a major furtherance for the Catholic cause, but abstained from voting in the Church </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Assembly because of the omission of the Athanasian Creed (see above)</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the Western </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">side, there appears to have been some indecision over the bishops' proposals.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In mid 1927 the General Secretary of the Federation of Catholic Priests reported to Darwell Stone that he was '<i>amazed to find the most unlikely people</i>' who saw revision as a consolidation of Anglo-Catholic demands.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">No doubt some were tempted to except the changes as an instalment in the Catholicisation of the Church of England.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In addition, the convocational vote in favour of revision appears to have put some Western Catholics in two minds as to whether they should </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">undermine the spiritual authority of the Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">An alignment with erastian Protestants against the Church's ruling on revision would have proven a bizarre concept for Anglo-Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">One of the followers of Thomas Erastus, a German physician and theologian of the 16th century. He held that the punishment of all offenses should be referred to the civil power, and that holy communion was open to all. In the present day, an Erastian is <i>one who would see the church placed entirely under the control of the State</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Nevertheless, despite these irregularities, by and large the line of division over revision was drawn between the English and Western Catholic factions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The widely-held attitude of English Catholics towards the proposals was that they represented a generous offer from the bishops and that they recognised Anglo-Catholicism as an acceptable form of churchman-ship within Anglicanism.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Primrose Hill</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Percy Dearmer endorsed the measure wholeheartedly, his replacement at Primrose Hill, A. S. Duncan-Jones, praised the proposals, and Francis Underhill, who rose to prominence through his leadership of 'the 1,300', perhaps securing his bishopric of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Bath and Wells as a result, argued that the book secured much for which Catholics had campaigned during the nineteenth and twentieth centuries.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Arthur Stuart Duncan-Jones (25 April 1879 – 19 January 1955) was an Anglican priest and author in the first half of the 20th century. Arthur Duncan-Jones was the son of the Revd Duncan Llewellyn Davies Jones. Educated at Pocklington School and Gonville and Caius College, Cambridge, he was ordained in 1912. He held the College living at Blofield from 1912 until 1915 when he became Rector of Louth. He held further incumbencies at St Mary’s, Primrose Hill, and St Paul’s, Knightsbridge, before being elevated to the Deanery at Chichester Cathedral in 1929. He held this post until his death on 19 January 1955.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These leaders broadcasted both the liturgical advances of the alternative book and the opportunities created for peace and order.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The potential areas of controversy for Anglo-Catholics in the proposals concerned the <i>alternative canon</i> and the <i>reservation rubrics</i>, particularly the prohibition of <i>corporate adoration </i>(Benediction).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These controversial points were, in the main, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">supported by English Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Regarding the alternative service, most were </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">willing to acquiesce to the Eastern Orthodox model of communion, which emphasised the <i>epiclesis</i>, the work of the Holy Spirit, rather than Christ's Institution, the recital '<i>this is my body, this is my blood</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The epiclesis (also spelled epiklesis; from Ancient Greek: ἐπίκλησις "invocation" or "calling down from on high") is that part of the Anaphora (Eucharistic Prayer) by which the priest invokes the Holy Spirit (or the power of His blessing) upon the Eucharistic bread and wine in some Christian churches.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although this development was a deviation from the 1549 book, it was the practice in the</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Scottish and American Churches, and had been <i>recommended</i> by Bishop Frere.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Canon Goudge argued in the 'Church Times' that although the western model of consecration was superior, the Eastern method was valid, and that Catholics owed the bishops a '<i>deep debt of gratitude'</i> for daring to alter the communion rite at all.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Charles Gore argued that the Eastern model still sanctioned the idea of an </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>alteration of the elements</i> (bread and wine).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Generally, the alternative service seemed to have </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">moved towards the Catholic understanding and form of the eucharist, and moderate Catholics were less concerned over following the Roman rite.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Reservation of the Blessed Sacrament</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On <i>reservation</i>, although the leadership of 'the 1,300' asked the bishops to act synodically in deciding whether to authorise continuous reservation, most moderates saw the permission for reservation as a <i>major gain</i> for the Anglo-Catholic party, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">considering that previously a priest had needed a licence to practise reservation for the sick.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Benediction</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Predictably, the rubric forbidding corporate services of adoration (Benediction) was </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">welcomed by English Catholics as a Predictably, the rubric forbidding corporate services of adoration (Benediction) was welcomed by English Catholics as a roadblock preventing further Roman </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">developments within the Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The liturgical modifications in the 1927 book seemed to have <i>English Catholic</i> credentials, providing moderate Catholic changes while inhibiting continental Ultramontane excesses.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Moderate Anglo-Catholics saw the revision measure as an opportunity to bring <i>peace</i> and <i>order </i>and <i>strengthen</i> the position of the party within the Anglican Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">If the party rejected this armistice, some argued, it would appear that the factiousness and rebelliousness of Anglo-Catholicism was innate and incurable.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">W. M. Bell, a member of the local Halifax branch of the ECU, pleaded for </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">members to support the book, arguing that the party was in danger of becoming an '</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">intransigent body of irreconcilables</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">' and 'ecclesiastical Sinn Féiners'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Various leaders beseeched the party at large to adopt a more peaceable and obedient attitude towards the bishops.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Athelstan Riley, despite deciding to abstain from voting on revision because of its treatment of the Athanasian Creed, asked his colleagues at the Church Assembly to stop seeing the bishops as ogres scenting Anglo-Catholic blood.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The revised book seemed to <i>cement</i> the influence of English Catholicism in the Church, and High Churchmen attempted to persuade their extreme brethren not to spurn such an opportunity for the party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The response of advanced Catholics towards the 1927 revision measure was guided by concerns about the book's comprehensiveness and scepticism over the bishops' motivations. The 'Green Quarterly' argued that the diocesans were saying '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>we rejoice in being gloriously comprehensive, but this means that we shall be </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>quite gloriously in-comprehensive in regard to the things we don't like'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The book was too moderate in feel, and centrally Anglican in scope, according to W. L. Knox, who maintained that the book represented '<i>the general lines along which all parties in the Church of England which fall between the limits of moderate Anglo- Catholicism and moderate Evangelicalism are prepared to come to terms</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It seemed that in trying to compromise with the Anglo-Catholic party, the bishops were willing to isolate those advanced members who would not come into line.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Dom Anselm Hughes later described the bishops' tactic as being one of brakesmanship: placating the Anglo-Catholic party with moderate reform in order to end extreme practices such as <i>extra-liturgical devotions</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This policy would bring to light the dilemmas of authority and principle for advanced Catholics. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For Western Catholics such as Knox, the answer to this question was plain.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He argued that order in worship was '<i>highly desirable but not in itself very important. The question is not about order but whether certain practices are a good thing or not'.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In their response to the bishops' proposals, Western Catholics would claim that </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">certain principles and practices were too crucial to Catholic revival, and central to liturgical principle to sacrifice for the sake of '<i>peace and order</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Western Catholic attitude was most affected by the 'controversial' changes in the 1927 book regarding the alternative service, the reservation rubrics and particularly the prohibition of corporate adoration.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The alternative communion rite was a stumbling block for advanced Catholics because it used the Eastern rather </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">than the Roman model of consecration.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The proposed revision deviated from both </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the 1549 book and contemporary continental custom.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">For Western Catholics and Anglo-Papalists, such a wedge between Anglican and Roman convention was undesirable.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The reservation rubrics regarding the practise being '<i>for the sick only</i>', and the need for a special licence to <i>reserve perpetually</i> were seen as unacceptable, both in a pastoral and practical sense.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'sacramental method' of regular and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">easily accessible communion services was understood as fundamental to the success of the Catholic revival in England.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Henry Falconer Barclay Mackay</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In a speech at the 1927 Anglo-Catholic Congress, H. F. B. Mackay, priest at All Saints', Margaret Street, London, argued this point, suggesting that <i>reservation</i> was historically <i>legitimate</i> and contemporarily essential for the sick and the 'oppressed' (those who could not</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">attend normal communion because of their conditions of employment).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">urban parishes in which Anglo-Catholics were focusing their resources, communion for the latter grouping was particularly vital.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In the judgement of Western Catholics, '<i>the deadly evil in the Church of England is the separation of the Lord's children from the Lord's table</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The same point was made passionately by Kenneth Ingram at an ECU council meeting: '<i>We would strain every effort, and make every sacrifice possible to secure peace in our own borders. And it is only when we are asked to go into the wide battle, with a hand tied </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>securely behind our backs, that we say that such a handicap is impossible. We must have both hands free. And that is the nature of our protest,' </i>h</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">owever, the loudest </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">cry of disapproval was saved for the regulations concerning extra-liturgical </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">devotions.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Benediction</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Statements by the Archbishop suggested that the bishops appeared to be unanimous in their intention to outlaw services of corporate adoration (Benediction).</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darwell Stone announced to the 'Council of the Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament' that the main point of issue in the crisis was 'nothing less than the adoration of our Divine Lord and Saviour in the Blessed Sacrament, whether in the course of liturgy or when the Sacrament is reserved'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It appeared contradictory to allow perpetual </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">reservation, which in itself implied a doctrine of the real presence, but forbid </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">corporate services of adoration.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This policy, argued F. N. Thicknesse, a member of the Church Assembly, did not repudiate, but rather 'traverse' a view of the <i>real presence</i> that was<i> thoroughly Catholic</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The practice of <i>corporate devotions</i> had become increasingly popular in Western Catholic parishes, and this was underlined in the strong <i>rejection</i> of the reservation rubrics during the controversy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The centrality of this matter to advanced Catholic concerns reveals the direction in emphasis of the Western school during the 1920s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Alongside these liturgical concerns, advanced Churchmen also addressed the issue of ecclesiastical politics, and the balance of power in the parish church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many believed that the control of the parish priest was diminished by the reservation rubrics in favour of the local bishop and the PCC.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">W. L. Knox argued was the strongest advocate of the idea that priestly authority was reduced in the revision </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">measure.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">These concerns were heightened by the influence of Parliament in the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">selection of bishops. This procedure meant that the whole ecclesiastical system </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">seemed biased in favour of Protestant opinion.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Bishop Barnes of Birmingham</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The appointment of Bishop Barnes to the Birmingham diocese in 1924 and his subsequent tirades against Catholic <i>'</i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>idolatry</i>', and refusal to allow the reserved sacrament to be kept in the open church building, was seen as a prime example of the injustices affecting the party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">On the priest's opposite flank, it was suggested that the power of the laity had been </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">increased by the rubric saying that the PCC should be able to oppose certain usages of the book.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This, according to one prominent priest and member of convocation, was 'surely a grave intrusion into the rights and leadership of the parish priest'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Such concerns reflected the desire amongst some advanced Anglo-Catholic clergy </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">for <i>priestly autonomy.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Their insecurity was a result of the unpopularity of ritual in some rural parishes, and perhaps indicated an over-zealousness and arrogance regarding the implementation of the Catholic revival within the Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Overall, these liturgical, pastoral and political apprehensions meant that Western Catholics were mostly in <i>opposition</i> to the revision measure, preferring to keep the status quo and continue to use the 1662 book rather than face the regulation of the 1927 book.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the general distinction between English and moderate and Western and advanced Catholic responses to revision remained, the changes adopted by the bishops following the re-revision of the Prayer Book in early 1928 had the effect of <i>hardening</i> Anglo-Catholic opposition to the bishops' proposals.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Parliament's rejection of the deposited book was followed by the bishops' decision to reinsert</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">the 'Black Rubric', and give bishops the right to <i>force</i> parishes to keep the reserved </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">sacrament in the vestry cupboard.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This miscalculation (for it also failed to increase </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Protestant support) was seen by many Catholics as a <i>capitulation</i> to <i>secular authority</i> and a slur on the doctrine of the <i>real presence</i>. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Support from key individuals, such as Bishop Frere and Maurice Relton, was retracted.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Frere believed that the new restrictions on reservation were intolerable and a deviation from the generous ethos of revision which would prevent an armistice with the Anglo-Catholic party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Individual priests who had formerly been in favour of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">revision, such as A. G. Whye of the Olney parish in Buckinghamshire, retracted </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">their support on the basis that the bishops' '<i>by yielding to the dictates of Parliament, compromised the spiritual authority of the Church of England</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">This high-level and low-level change in opinion was reflected in the organs and institutions of the party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Church Times' ceased to sit on the fence, arguing that the 'eleventh hour' addition of restrictions was an unwelcome capitulation to secular authority.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Most </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">significantly, the ECU council finally felt safe to <i>choose sides</i> and passed a resolution <i>recommending</i> that Catholics in convocation vote <i>against</i> revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Union, alongside the 'Central Council of Catholic Societies', organised a meeting of the laity with the purpose of making a declaration of principle regarding the <i>real presence</i> of Christ and the need to '<i>claim for Him the honour and worship </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">which are due to his Name and Person in that Sacrament anywhere at all times</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The declaration was endorsed by the 2,000 members present and another 2,373 by post.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The declaration also stated the belief that '<i>inward</i>' and '<i>outward</i>' acts of adoration were due to the r<i>eal presence</i>, and that Christ was no less present in the reserved sacrament outside of the eucharistic service and was thus '<i>always to be adored with like acts of devotion</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">All these developments indicated that the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1928 book <i>consolidated</i> Anglo-Catholic opinion against revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Furthermore, </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">they underlined the extent to which the party, despite all its internal tensions, retained some cohesion in the 1920s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The unity of the Anglo-Catholic Congresses was not merely a façade.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Many continued to see the party as a <i>single movement,</i> with pioneers and conservatives. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Maurice Relton, for example, retracted his support for revision in 1928 because the bishops no longer offered a fair armistice </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to his advanced brethren.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus, although Anglo-Catholicism did polarise in the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1920s, the subdivisions within the party were <i>not </i>emphasised to the same degree as between conservative and liberal Evangelicals. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The common experiences of the nineteenth century, and the triumphal successes of the twentieth century, maintained a synthesising spirit within the movement as a whole.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Prayer Book controversy offers a window on to Anglo-Catholicism in the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1920s, allowing an assessment of the identity of the party, its attitude towards authority and its position within Anglicanism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The events of 1927-28 point towards </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">two important trends within the movement: firstly, the increased influence of Western Catholicism and, secondly, the declining unity of the party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The rise of advanced theology and ritual was most evident in the stances of the ECU and the 'Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament' on revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the ECU did not </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">have an official position until 1928, when it opposed the re-revised book, its actions during 1927 were far from neutral.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"> Corporate Adoration</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The ECU actually assented to a secret memorandum sent to the bishops by the Central Council of Catholic Societies recommending that the revision, or its controversial parts, be postponed '<i>for some years</i>', because a large body of Anglo-Catholic opinion could not accept the rules </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">regarding <i>corporate adoration</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Although the memorandum highlighted the need </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to maintain unity, such a one-sided proposal was hardly representative of the many Catholics who favoured revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The advanced tendencies of the ECU were again evident in 1928, with its support for the CCCS declaration of principle regarding the <i>real presence</i> of Christ.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The declaration's statement regarding the legitimacy of outward acts of adoration again emphasised the ideology of advanced Anglo-Catholicism, and did not express the concerns of moderate English Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The declaration was of a similar spirit to a number of papers delivered at the previous year's Anglo-Catholic Congress, where H. F. B. Mackay argued for a '<i>dignified</i>' </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">and sacred position of the reserved sacrament at the altar,159 and Lionel Thornton </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">suggested that the reserved sacrament should be adored outside of the eucharistic rite.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Where our Lord is sacramentaly present,<br />
there He must be adored.</td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thornton announced uncompromisingly, '<i>where our Lord is sacramentaly </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>present, there He must be adored'</i>.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Some English Catholics believed that this Western Catholic ideology was on the verge of capturing the ECU and sending it in a Roman direction.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Western Catholic school also influenced the response of the 'Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament' towards revision.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darwell Stone held enormous sway at the annual meetings of the Confraternity in 1927 and 1928, giving detailed refutations of the revision proposals at both.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Superior General, C. P. Shaw, was determinedly opposed to revision and the minutes of the annual meetings suggest that an atmosphere of animosity towards the proposals was created.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When one representative, E. J. G. Forse, a young advanced priest, suggested acceptance of revision, there was a response of shouts of '<i>no</i>', and threats of resignation.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Furthermore, it seems unfair that there was no general vote on revision, as </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">organised by the Federation of Catholic Priests.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">There is evidence that local groups of the Confraternity were less opposed than the leadership of the organisation to the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">1927 book.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Lionel Thornton reported to Darwell Stone in April that the Yorkshire branch of the Confraternity were strongly in favour of revision, warning 'you ought to know that the tide is turning strongly in favour of the book in these parts'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">He continued, '<i>if we take the line that no good Anglo-Catholic ought to use the book,</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>we shall split the movement from top to bottom'.</i></span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus, it seems that Western<i> </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholic leaders enjoyed a wide sphere of influence over the Anglo-Catholic party in 1927-28.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Darwell Stone, in particular, dominated during the period, wielding authority in the ECU and the 'Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament', as well as in the 'Federation of Catholic Priests'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The revision crisis both underlined and accentuated the rise in Western Catholic influence amongst members of the party at large during the 1920s.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Consequently, the furore over revision also highlighted a decline in Anglo-Catholic unity.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The declaration of belief organised by the 'Central Council for Catholic Societies' regarding the <i>real presence</i> and <i>adoration</i> was criticised by moderate Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The 'Church Times' questioned whether such an immoderate statement took into account the broad range of Anglo-Catholic belief regarding </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">outward devotions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The emotions of some moderate priests were evident in a </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">number of letters to Darwell Stone. One, from J. E. Thompson, assistant curate at All Saints', Wokingham, enquired '<i>will you be so kind as to tell me whether a priest who is opposed to 'devotions' and Benediction can associate himself with the 'Declaration of Belief' in today's issue of the 'Church Times' ?</i>'</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1929 another writer criticised Stone's support for <i>illegal devotions</i> in London parishes, complaining that his actions gave the impression that '<i>Catholics will not obey anybody and look upon the Church as being just another branch of the Roman </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Catholics</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Even the 'Federation of Catholic Priests' was not exempt from </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">division over revision. </span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">A. G. M. Flemming, assistant priest at St Mary Magdalene's, Oxford, resigned from the Federation because of its intransigent policy, suggesting that the proposals should be accepted as an expression of </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">appreciation of the '<i>immense gains and advantages the new book gives them</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The <i>disunity</i> within Anglo-Catholicism was further demonstrated as the English Catholic element within the movement began to distance itself from the Western Catholic faction.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The '1,300' group, formed in response to the bishops' proposals, continued to exist after the storm over revision had calmed, encouraging loyalty to the Church.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In September 1929 it sent a memorandum to bishops offering </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">support for use of the 1928 book following parliament's second rejection, but requesting the right to appeal on certain reservation rubrics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Furthermore, the disgruntlement and disillusionment amongst English Catholics regarding the direction of the party saw the establishing of a new paper, the 'English Catholic', during the controversy in 1928.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The columns of this organ were dominated by prominent members of 'the 1300', such as E. J. Bicknell and C. B. Moss.</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It voiced an intransigent attitude towards Western Catholic practice, instead celebrating the </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'</span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">genius of the English Church</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">' and the 'English Use'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The paper launched some </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">fierce assaults on continentalists, with, for example, F. C. Howard lambasting the practitioners of Roman methods, saying '<i>they offer to God what is mean and trivial, and deck his throne with what is tawdry, bizarre and theatrical</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The Western Catholic faction also experienced a rise in self-identification and </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">partisanship as a result of the controversy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In 1928 N. P. Williams authored a book concerning the identity of the party, rejecting the idea that 'Anglo' implied the need </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">to express <i>Englishness </i>in liturgy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Halifax and Stone continued to press for an adoption of the 1549 book, with perpetual reservation as a '<i>right</i>', a western model of consecration, and the allowance of corporate adoration.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">While 'the 1300' group demonstrated loyalty and obedience to the bishops in the aftermath of the controversy, Western Catholic leaders maintained their principled and defiant </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">support for devotions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">When twenty-one incumbent priests refused to give up services of corporate adoration in the diocese of London in 1929, Stone, Halifax, Knox and Thornton wrote to 'The Times' defending their actions.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Thus, the Western Catholic faction resolved to continue an uncompromising policy begun </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">during the revision controversy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The advanced wing of the party also continued its attempts to dominate the various Anglo-Catholic organisations.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Viscount Halifax wrote to the new Archbishop of Canterbury in 1932, informing him that 't<i>he ECU will almost certainly have to be brought into closer relation with the Federation of Catholic Priests and the Anglo-Catholic Congress committees, which are becoming everyday more powerful, in order to create a body really capable of giving effective support to all that concerns the vital interests of the Church and the reunion of </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Christendom</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">'We should do our utmost', wrote Athelstan Riley to Halifax in 1932, 't<i>o unite all Catholic-minded clergy and not separate them into cliques; e.g., Anglo- Catholic and High Church...Our victories in the nineteenth century were due to </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>the fact that in the last resort we could always rely on the support of all who </i></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><i>regarded themselves as Tractarians</i>'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The implication was that there had been a loss of unity in the sacramental movement.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The events of 1927-28 had a significant impact on the Anglo-Catholic party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The controversy heightened the division within the movement between the old school of English Catholics and a new school of Western Catholics.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The revision controversy occurred only a few years before the one-hundredth anniversary of the Oxford Movement in 1933.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">It was a period during which Anglo-Catholics wished to consider the identity and direction of Tractarianism, both retrospectively and prospectively, however, the leaders of the movement faced the harsh reality that Anglo-Catholics were increasingly divided over the identity of the party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As C. B. Moss claimed in the 'English Catholic' in 1931, '<i>we are going to commemorate the Oxford movement, but we are not agreed about the Oxford </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">movemen</i><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">t'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The revision controversy was the climax of a conflict between </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English and Western Catholics which had developed in the earlier decades, and resulted in a major rift within Anglo-Catholicism.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The two main identities - '</span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">English' and 'Western' - were, deeply ingrained and multifaceted, dividing party members culturally and politically as well as liturgically and doctrinally.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The division within the 1920s movement occurred parallel with the split within Evangelicalism. English Catholicism, like liberal </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Evangelicalism, began to associate itself increasingly with Centre-High </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Anglicanism rather than its own party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">As a result its methods became popular in the Church at large, but went out of favour in Catholic circles.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">In terms of identity and authority, the events of 1927-28 emphasised the developing <i>dominance</i> of <i>advanced ritualism</i> within the party.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The figures of Darwell Stone and other <i>continental-influenced</i> leaders cast <i>long shadows</i> over the 'English Church Union', the 'Confraternity of the Blessed Sacrament' and the 'Federation of Catholic Priests'.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The influence of <i>advanced ritual</i> was highlighted by the central importance of <i>corporate devotions</i>, during the revision controversy.</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The controversy underlined that the pendulum of faction influence had </span><span style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">begun to swing noticeably in favour of Western Catholicism by the late 1920s.</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Despite the traditional teaching of the Christian Church that homosexual behaviour is always sinful, there are grounds for believing that Anglo-Catholic religion within the Church of England has offered emotional and aesthetic satisfactions that have been particularly attractive to </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">members of a stigmatised sexual minority.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This apparent connection between Anglo-Catholicism and the male homosexual subculture in the English-speaking world has often been remarked upon, but it has never been fully explored. In 1960, for example, in a pioneering study of male homosexuality in Britain, Gordon Westwood stated:</span><br />
<i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;"><br /></i><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">Some of the contacts maintained that the highest proportion of homosexuals who are regular churchgoers favoured the Anglo-Catholic churches. ... It was not possible to confirm that suggestion in this survey, but it is not difficult to understand that the services with impressive ceremony and large choirs are more likely to appeal to homosexuals.</i><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">More recently, in the United States, several former priests of the Episcopal church have described some of the links between homosexual men and Catholic forms of religion, on the basis of their own knowledge of Anglo-Catholic parishes.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This essay brings together some of the historical evidence of the ways in which a homosexual sensibility has expressed itself within Anglo-Catholicism.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Until the late nineteenth century homosexuality was socially defined in </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">terms of certain forbidden sexual acts, such as 'buggery' or 'sodomy'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Homosexual behavior was regarded as a product of male lust, potential in anyone unless it was severely condemned and punished.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In England homosexuality had been covered by the criminal law since 1533 when the state took over the responsibility for dealing with the offence from the ecclesiastical courts.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The last executions for buggery took place in the 1830s, but it was not until 1861 that the death penalty was abolished.</span><br /><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In the 1880s and 1890s, at the same time that the word homosexuality entered the English language, largely through the work of Havelock Ellis, social attitudes towards homosexuality underwent a major change.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">From being defined in terms of sinful behaviour, homosexuality came to be regarded as a characteristic of a particular type of person.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Because homosexuality was seen as a condition, homosexuals were therefore a species, which it became the object of the social sciences to explore and explain.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The principal vehicles of this redefinition were legal and medical.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Homosexual behaviour became subject to increased legal penalties, which extended the law to cover all male homosexual acts, whether committed in public or private.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Oscar Wilde</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This in turn led to a series of sensational scandals, culminating in the three trials of Oscar Wilde in 1895.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Oscar Fingal O'Flahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 1854 – 30 November 1900) was an Irish writer and poet. After writing in different forms throughout the 1880s, he became one of London's most popular playwrights in the early 1890s. Today he is remembered for his epigrams, his only novel ('The Picture of Dorian Gray'), his plays, and the circumstances of his imprisonment and early death.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Oscar Wilde converted to the Roman Catholic Church before his death in 1900.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The harsher legal sanctions were accompanied over a longer period by an important change in the conceptualisation of homosexuality: the emergence of the idea that homosexuality was a disease or sickness which required treatment.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The result, however, was that the late nineteenth century saw homosexuality acquire new labelling, in the context of a social climate that was more hostile than before.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The tightening of the law, and the widespread acceptance by opinion-makers of the medical model of homosexuality produced conditions within which men with homosexual feelings began to develop a conscious collective identity.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">For although a small homosexual subculture had existed in London ,and a few other cities in the British Isles, since the early eighteenth century, the final development of a homosexual underground was essentially a phenomenon of the late nineteenth century.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Such a subculture did not rise in a vacuum.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It was a direct consequence of growing social hostility that compelled homosexual men to begin to perceive themselves as members of a group with certain distinctive characteristics.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The homosexual subculture, in which sexual meanings were defined and sharpened, was then predominantly male, revolving around meeting place, clubs, pubs, etc.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Indeed, perhaps it was less a single subculture than a series of overlapping subcultures, each part supplying a different need.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In its most organized aspect there was often an emphasis on transvestism, a self-mocking effeminacy, an argot (slang).</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Although the homosexual subculture embraced men of all ages and occupations, and there are many recorded examples of close friendships across class barriers, upper middle-class values predominated.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This was probably because in late Victorian England only middle-class men had sufficient social freedom to develop a homosexual lifestyle.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Most of these middle-class homosexuals were married and lived double lives.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Outside or on the fringes of the subculture were many men with a homosexual orientation who avoided giving their behaviour a homosexual interpretation.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Until the mid-twentieth century, because male homosexuality was so often equated in popular thinking with the display of feminine behaviour and personality traits, it was often difficult for men who combined strong homosexual feelings with a strong sense of male gender identity to regard themselves as homosexual.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">One facet of the homosexual subculture was Anglo-Catholic religion.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">For many homosexual men in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, Anglo-Catholicism provided a set of institutions and religious practices through which they could express their sense of difference in an <i>oblique</i> and <i>symbolic</i> way.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Martin Travers<br />
Tridentine Mass</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A large number of religious and social rebels were similarly attracted to Anglo-Catholicism at this time.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Some were drawn by the Anglo-Catholic idea of the church as a divinely constituted religious society, and by its emphasis on tradition, dogma, and visible beauty in worship.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Others, of radical temperament, found in Anglo-Catholicism a religion freed from the respectability and the puritanism of the churches in which they had grown up.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Starting in the 1830s Oxford Tractarians had sought to revive in the established church the traditions of the ancient and undivided Church in doctrine, liturgy, and devotion.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In the early 19th century, various factors caused misgivings among English church people, including the decline of church life, and the spread of unconventional practices in the Church of England.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">John Keble</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The British government's action in 1833 of beginning a reduction in the number of Church of Ireland bishoprics and archbishoprics inspired a sermon from John Keble in the University Church in Oxford on the subject of "National Apostasy".</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This sermon marked the inception of what became known as the 'Oxford Movement' or Oxford Tractarians'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The principal objective of the Oxford Movement was the defence of the Church of England as a divinely-founded institution, of the doctrine of the Apostolic Succession and of the Book of Common Prayer as a "rule of faith".</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The key idea was that Anglicanism was not a Protestant denomination, but rather a branch of the historic Catholic Church, along with the Roman Catholic Church and the Eastern Orthodox churches.</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It was argued that Anglicanism had preserved the historical apostolic succession of priests and bishops and thus the Catholic sacraments.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Their teachings included the God-given authority and spiritual independence of the church, a high doctrine of the ministry and of the sacraments, and a rejection of religious liberalism and rationalism.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Also central to the Oxford Movement was a sense of <i>awe and mystery </i>in religion, a feeling for <i>poetry </i>and <i>symbolism</i> as vehicles of religious truth.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A feature of the early Oxford Movement was the prevalence among its male followers of <i>intense </i>and<i> demonstrative friendships</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">These relationships were not regarded by contemporaries as '<i>unnatural</i>', for intimate friendships were common enough at the time in the exclusively male communities of public school and university.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">John Henry Newman</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">What was unusual in John Henry Newman's circle was the prominence given to <i>celibacy</i> and the consequent foundation of <i>religious brotherhoods</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This has generally been interpreted by historians as an expression of religious idealism and self-sacrifice: the idea of celibacy, in those whom it affected at Oxford, was in the highest degree a religious and romantic one.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Did it also, in many cases, have a<i> homosexual </i>motivation ?</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It seems inherently possible that young men who were secretly troubled by <i>homosexual feelings</i> that they could not publicly acknowledge may have been attracted by the prospect of devoting themselves to a life of celibacy, in the company of like-minded male friends, as a religiously-sanctioned alternative to marriage.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Newman himself believed and taught that celibacy was '<i>a high state of life to which the multitude of men cannot aspire</i>'.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">James Harrison Rigg</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This<i> homoerotic motivation</i> was strongly hinted at in the 1890s by James Rigg, a Wesleyan historian of the Oxford Movement, who made much of the '<i>characteristically feminine</i>' mind and temperament of Newman and the lack of <i>virility </i>of most of his disciples.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">James Harrison Rigg (16 January 1821 – 7 April 1909), was a Methodist minister and educationist.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The idea was developed and popularised by Geoffrey Faber in his classic 'Oxford Apostles' (1933).</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">John Henry Newman</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">His portrait of Newman as a <i>sublimated homosexual</i> (though the word itself was not used) has since been a source of embarrassment to those biographers and theologians who seek to present him as a 'Saint for Our Time'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Of the intensity of their relationship between Ambrose St. John and Newman, however, there can be no doubt.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Reverend Father Ambrose St. John</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">The Reverend Father Ambrose St. John (1815 – 24 May 1875 Edgbaston, Birmingham) was an English Oratorian and convert to Catholicism. He is now best known as a lifelong friend of John Henry Newman.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Newman paid tribute to him in his 'Apologia'. 'In The Dream of Gerontius', Edward Elgar's piece based on Newman's poem, the character of the Guardian Angel is considered to be based on St. John.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Newman wrote after the death of Fr. Ambrose St John in 1875: "<i>I have ever thought no bereavement was equal to that of a husband's or a wife's, but I feel it difficult to believe that any can be greater, or any one's sorrow greater, than mine</i>."</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In accordance with his expressed wishes, in 1890 Cardinal Newman was buried in the grave with The Rev. Fr. Ambrose St. John. Previously, they had shared a house. The pall over the coffin bore his cardinal's motto Cor ad cor loquitur ("<i>Heart speaks to heart</i>"). The two men have a joint memorial stone that is inscribed with the words he had chosen: '<i>Ex umbris et imaginibus in veritatem</i>' ("<i>Out of shadows and phantasms into the truth</i>"). In 2008, Newman's remains in the shared grave were exhumed as part of a plan to move them to the Oratory in Birmingham city centre in preparation for Newman's possible canonization. At the exhumation, Newman's wooden coffin was found to have disintegrated and his body completely decayed.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Newman recalled their early years in this way:</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">“<i>From the first he loved me with an intensity of love, which was unaccountable. At Rome 28 years ago he was always so working for and relieving me of all trouble, that being young and Saxon-looking, the Romans called him my Angel Guardian.</i>”</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">On his death in 1890 Newman was buried at his own wish in the same grave as St. John.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Frederick William Faber</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Richard Hurrell Froude</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The same aura of ambiguous sexuality surrounds other figures in </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Newman's circle, notably Richard Hurrell Froude, who died young in 1836, and the effusive Frederick William Faber, who followed Newman into the Roman Catholic church in 1845.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br />Richard Hurrell Froude (25 March 1803 – 28 February 1836) was an Anglican priest and an early leader of the Oxford Movement. Froude was born in Dartington, Devonshire, England. Froude is presumed in some quarters such as Geoffrey Faber in his 'Oxford Apostles', to be, if not gay in the modern sense of the word, at least not heterosexual in the traditional definition, as implied by his relationship with John Henry Newman.</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Frederick William Faber, C.O., (28 June 1814 — 26 September 1863) was a noted English hymn writer and theologian, who converted from Anglicanism to the Catholic priesthood. His best known work is 'Faith of Our Fathers'. Though he was a Roman Catholic writing for fellow Catholics at that point, many of his hymns today are sung by Protestant congregations.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Geoffrey Faber, for example, argued that Froude's temperamental bias can be inferred from the fervour of his masculine friendships, the tone and temper of his private journal, and especially its unmistakable language of conflict with sexual temptation.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">He claimed that Froude's private writings reveal an intense struggle between an 'Old Self' and a 'New Self', in which his <i>homosexual instincts </i>(the beast within him) were sublimated into a positive religious ideal: the idea of virginity.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Any interpretation must remain controversial, however and it is unrealistic to expect</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">documented proof of overt homosexual behaviour, for if sexual activity of any kind occurred between male lovers in private the fact is unlikely to have been recorded.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Nor is it possible, on the basis of passionate words uttered by mid-Victorians, to make a clear distinction between male affection and homosexual feeling.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Theirs was a generation prepared to accept romantic friendships between men simply as friendships without sexual significance.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Only with the emergence in the late nineteenth century of the doctrine of the 'stiff-upper-lip', and the concept of homosexuality as an identifiable condition, did open expressions of love between men become suspect and regarded in a new light as morally undesirable.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In addition there is the general question of whether intimate friendships between members of the same sex can legitimately be labelled homosexual when the individuals concerned may not be conscious at the time of an underlying erotic attraction.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">On the other hand one should also remember the reluctance of many historians (especially historians of religion) to consider the implications of the fact that the men and women they study did have sexual feelings, and that not all of them were attracted to the opposite sex.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">When the Oxford and Anglo-Catholic Movements are examined as a whole, the hypothesis of the existence of a continuous current of homoerotic sentiment would appear to offer a plausible explanation of a great deal of otherwise <i>mysterious</i> behaviour and comment.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The extent to which these homosexual inclinations were unrecognised, sublimated, consciously disciplined, or expressed in overt sexual acts cannot easily be ascertained.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In view of the weight of the traditional Christian condemnation of any sexual relationship outside marriage, and (one may assume) the ambivalent attitudes of the individuals concerned towards their own sexuality, it is likely that the majority of homosexual friendships in Anglo-Catholic circles did not find physical expression.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">But this is not to deny the strength of the emotions that they generated and their subtle influence on <i>religious attitudes </i>and <i>behaviour</i>.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The Oxford Movement provoked vehement hostility in the Church of England.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Evangelical and Broad Church critics claimed that it fostered <i>novel ideas</i> and religious practices, such as the <i>separateness of the professional priesthood,</i> and the increased use of <i>ceremonial</i> in church services.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">They deplored this sacerdotalism and ritualism as essentially <i> un-English,</i> and <i>unmanly</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Moreover, there was a marked difference between the self-assertiveness and noisy emotionalism of popular Protestantism, and the ethos of Tractarian piety, with Its concern for <i>reverence</i> and <i>reserve</i> in discussing sacred truths, its delight in <i>symbolism</i> and subtle imagery, and its strict observance of the traditional feasts and disciplines of the church.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Charles Kingsley</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It may be surmised that Charles Kingsley's deep hostility to Newman was based largely on an instinctive feeling (for the two men never actually met) that there was something rather <i>unhealthy </i>about Newman and his circle.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Charles Kingsley (12 June 1819 – 23 January 1875) was a priest of the Church of England, a university professor, historian and novelist. He is particularly associated with the West Country and northeast Hampshire. He was a friend and correspondent with Charles Darwin. Kingley's concern for social reform is illustrated in his classic, The Water-Babies, A Fairy Tale for a Land Baby (1863), a tale about a chimney sweep, which retained its popularity well into the 20th century</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-W508Rbs_jNw/UIrkpNnBHOI/AAAAAAAAKiw/2nTC-FYWr8E/s1600/Pope+Pius+ix+-+Romann+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="243" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-W508Rbs_jNw/UIrkpNnBHOI/AAAAAAAAKiw/2nTC-FYWr8E/w237-h243/Pope+Pius+ix+-+Romann+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" width="237" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Pope Pius IX</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In 1851 at the height of the agitation against Papal aggression in England (triggered off by Pope Pius IX's restoration of a Roman Catholic hierarchy), Kingsley had written of Roman Catholics and Tractarians:</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>'In all that school, there is an element of foppery - even in dress and manner; a fastidious, maundering, die-away effeminacy, which is mistaken for purity and refinement; and I confess myself unable to cope with it, so alluring is it to the minds of an effeminate and luxurious aristocracy; neither educated in all that should teach them to distinguish between bad and good taste, healthy and unhealthy philosophy or devotion.</i></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i><br /></i>Kingsley himself was an enthusiastic exponent of the duty of Christian '<i>manliness</i>', which he defined as courage, heartiness, physical vitality, and the procreation of children within marriage.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The idea of celibacy he abhorred as both <i>contrary to nature</i> and a <i>sin against God</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Thus the violence of his attack on Newman in 'Macmillan's Magazine' in 1864 cannot be explained solely in terms of the overt grounds of the conflict - the falsehood and cunning of the Roman clergy versus the Protestant virtues of truth and morality.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It should also be seen as a conflict of fundamentally opposing personalities - the subtle <i>misogamy</i> of Newman, versus the robust <i>uxoriousness</i> of Kingsley, of which neither man would have been fully aware.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The charge of effeminacy - the usual nineteenth-century caricature of male homosexuality - stuck to the successors of the Tractarians.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It was frequently used </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">by Protestant controversialists to smear the Anglo-Catholic party as a whole, though the allegations were more usually in the form of innuendo than direct</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It may be true that these suspicions were often founded on prejudice; it is equally likely that in many instances they had some basis in fact.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1_xsdz1BEPs/UqejqTxCZcI/AAAAAAAAVJA/ey8LQ-bygco/s1600/Samuel+Wilberforce+(1805%E2%80%931873)+-+Bishop+of+Oxford+-+George+Richmond+-+1868+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="290" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-1_xsdz1BEPs/UqejqTxCZcI/AAAAAAAAVJA/ey8LQ-bygco/w228-h290/Samuel+Wilberforce+(1805%E2%80%931873)+-+Bishop+of+Oxford+-+George+Richmond+-+1868+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="228" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Bishop Samuel Wilberforce of Oxford</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">After Bishop </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Samuel Wilberforce of Oxford founded Cuddesdon College in 1854 for the training of ordination candidates according to Tractarian principles, it was </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">rumoured among the country clergy of the Oxford diocese that Cuddesdon </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">trained curates were <i>unmanly</i>, and that their semi-monastic life bred <i>effeminacy</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Even Wilberforce himself was inclined to agree that the religious formation provided by his college lacked '<i>vigour'</i>, '<i>virility'</i> and '<i>self-expressing vitality'</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Samuel Wilberforce (7 September 1805 – 19 July 1873) was an English bishop in the Church of England, third son of William Wilberforce. Known as "<i>Soapy Sam</i>", Wilberforce was one of the greatest public speakers of his day. He is probably best remembered today for his opposition to Charles Darwin's theory of evolution - most notably at a famous debate in 1860. Although a High Churchman, Wilberforce held aloof from the Oxford movement, and in 1838 his divergence from the Tractarian writers became so marked that John Henry Newman declined further contributions from him to the British Critic, not deeming it advisable that they should longer "<i>co-operate very closely</i>."</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Bishop Edward King of Lincoln</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Bishop Edward King of Lincoln, a former chaplain and principal of Cuddesdon, was prosecuted in 1889-90 by a Protestant organisation, the Church Association, for the use of illegal ritual, and it is probable that a hidden factor in the decision to launch a prosecution was a dislike of King's personal characteristics.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">In 1885 King was made Anglican Bishop of Lincoln. The most eventful episode of his episcopate was his prosecution (1888–1890) for ritualistic practices before the Archbishop of Canterbury, Edward White Benson, and, on appeal, before the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council. Dr King, who loyally conformed his practices to the archbishop's judgement, devoted himself unsparingly to the work of his diocese; and, irrespective of his High Church views, he won the affection and reverence of all classes by his real saintliness of character. The bishop, who never married, died in Lincoln.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">As an <i>unmarried</i> High Churchman, who had been devoted to his theological students, and the first English diocesan bishop since the Reformation to wear a mitre and the traditional eucharistic vestments, he embodied all the Tractarian characteristics which Protestants held in special abhorrence.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The revival of pre-Reformation ceremonial in public worship, justified on historic grounds and as an expression of the sacramental principle, was a product of the <i>second </i>generation of the Oxford Movement.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">During the 1860s ritualism came into the public eye, and the clergy and congregations of ritualist churches were increasingly subjected to hostile scrutiny.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Clergymen of extreme High Church proclivities, sneered Punch, '<i>are very fond of dressing like ladies, They are much addicted to wearing vestments diversified with smart and gay colours, and variously trimmed and embroidered</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A Protestant visitor to St. Matthias's, Stoke Newington (London), which, with its coloured vestments, incense, and lighted candles was regarded as a centre of advanced ceremonial, wrote in the 'Rock' that the '<i>style of dress and the close-shaven face, favoured so greatly by English imitators of Rome, do give to most men a rather juvenile, if not womanly appearance'.</i></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Unlike most churches, '<i>the Ritualistic world attracts crowds of men, both young and old</i>'.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St. Alban - Holborn</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">About the same time a journalist from 'The Times' attended a Sunday High Mass at the famous ritualist church of St. Alban, Holborn - 'one of the ecclesiastical curiosities of London'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In describing its eclectic congregation, he noted that 'foremost perhaps, among the devotees are young men of 19 or 20 years of age, who seem to have the intricacies of ritualism at their fingers ends'. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">By the end of the century, the jubilee history of St. Alban's proudly related, the number of young men in the congregation had become 'more and more conspicuous'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Pious women there were in abundance - '<i>was there ever a church where they did not congregate - but St. Alban's was from the first a Man's church, and a Young Man's church before all</i>.'</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Some of the young men who clustered around Anglo-Catholic churches - '</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>many of them apparently shop assistants and clerks'</i> - were regarded by observers as '<i>unwholesome</i>' and 'sentimental'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">For many of those so described it is possible that Anglo-Catholic ritualism provided a way of escape from the problems of sexual tension and forbidden love into a make-believe world of religious pageantry, ancient titles and ranks, exotic symbolism, and endless chatter about copes and candles, the apostolic succession, and the triumphs of the 'true faith'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Certainly the more austere Anglo-Catholics were disquieted by the air of levity and unreality they witnessed in some of these circles, and they sought to distance themselves from the popular charge of effeminacy.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St. Peter's - London Docks</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Charles Fuge Lowder, vicar of St. Peter's, London Docks, for example, was described approvingly in his biography as 'not a Ritualist at all in the modem sense of the word, after the gushing, effeminate, sentimental manner of young shop-boys, or those who simply ape the ways of Rome'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The allegations persisted.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At the end of the nineteenth century the conflict between Protestantism and Anglo-Catholicism within the Church of England was still regularly depicted by Protestant propagandists as a struggle between <i>masculine</i> and <i>feminine</i> styles of religion.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">They pointed out the apparent appeal of Anglo-Catholic forms of worship to members of the upper classes - '<i>especially women, in the artificial and luxurious atmosphere of our wealthier classes</i>' which carried the implication that male Anglo-Catholics were <i>effete, decadent,</i> and <i>lacking in manly qualities</i>.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">John Kensit</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Protestant Truth Society</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In 1898 John Kensit, fanatical founder of the 'Protestant Truth Society', which specialised in disrupting the services of Anglo-Catholic churches, described to a cheering Protestant meeting in London the '<i>idolatry of a ritualist church at St. Cuthbert's, Pilbeach Gardens, that he had </i></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>invaded the previous Good Friday. The service had been conducted by a priest in petticoats. </i></span><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">The congregation were very poor specimens of men. </i><i style="font-family: Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif;">They seemed a peculiar sort of people, very peculiar indeed.</i><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">To his listeners, the meaning and intent of his remarks were obvious.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In the second half of the nineteenth century, as a result of the Oxford </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Movement, there was a revival of religious brotherhoods and sisterhoods in the Church of England.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The first two male communities, Newman's at Littlemore and F. W. Faber's at Elton, followed their founders into the Roman Catholic church in 1845.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This development confirmed Protestant suspicions that Tractarianism encouraged sexual aberration and impropriety. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The Protestant case against Anglican monasticism, in any of its forms, was not only that it propagated Romanising practices and doctrines, but that it was also contrary to God's <i>natural laws</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The suppression or perversion of 'natural love' by monastic vows led inevitably to corruption and defilement.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Popular imagination was fuelled by revelations and exaggerated rumours of sexual scandals (in both <i>Roman Catholic</i> and Anglican religious houses).</span><br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Anglo-Catholic Religious Societies</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The 'Anglo-Catholic underworld' was producing a succession of short-lived, often <i>clandestine</i>, brotherhoods and guilds, whose members delighted in religious ceremonial and the picturesque neo-Gothic externals of monastic life.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Because these brotherhoods enforced no strict criteria for entry, it is likely that they were especially attractive to homosexually inclined young men, who felt themselves drawn to the male environment of a monastic community, and the dramatic side of religion.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">These histories were punctuated with crises and scandals.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Elm Hill Monastery</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">One well publicised incident occurred in 1864, at a monastery in Elm Hill, Norwich, where the eccentric and quixotic Father Ignatius (Joseph Leycester Lyne) was trying to restore the Benedictine life within the English church.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Father Ignatius of Jesus</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Joseph Leycester Lyne, known by his religious name as Father Ignatius of Jesus (23 November 1837 – 16 October 1908), was an Anglican Benedictine monk.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He commenced a movement to introduce monasticism into the Church of England.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A love letter written by a Brother Augustine to a young apprentice printer, who sang in the priory's choir, was sent to the Norfolk News, and on 17 September 1864 it was printed in full in an article headed 'Ignatius and his Singing Boys'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The Protestant citizenry of Norwich was horrified.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The newspaper proceeded to publish a stern editorial on the moral evils inherent in monasticism:</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'We tell 'Ignatius' plainly, and we tell everybody else connected with this establishment who has the slightest power of reflection, that the herding together of men in one building, with the occasional letting in of young girls - some of them morbid, some of them silly and sentimental -and of boys likewise, with soft, sensitive temperaments, cannot fall to produce abominations. (Norfolk News, 24 September 1884).</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A year later the Elm Hill community was almost destroyed when Brother Stanislaus led malcontents in an unsuccessful rebellion against Ignatius's authority, then fled the priory with a boy from its associated Guild of St. William.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In 1868 the ex-Brother Stanislaus (James Barrett Hughes) reappeared as a popular guest speaker on Protestant platforms in London and the provinces, where he scandalised the respectable with revelations of the '<i>semi-Popish'</i> and '<i>improper practices'</i> established by Ignatius and other ritualists.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At a meeting in London two youths, brought up from Norwich specially for the occasion, '<i>made frightful charges, utterly unfit for publication, against a monk</i>' - a reference to Brother Augustine.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Then, in the following year, another youth alleged that he had lived at the monastery in a sexual relationship with Stanislaus, with the encouragement of Ignatius: it needed no more to set the Protestant world ablaze with joy and expectation.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Another monastic brotherhood was the Order of St. Augustine, founded in </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1867 by a wealthy and eccentric clergyman, George Nug.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In 1872 it established a priory at Walworth in South London, where it maintained a round of extremely elaborate services.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Most of those connected with St. Austin's Priory '<i>were rich men who enjoyed a comfortable life, and there was very little of a normal religious community about its spirit or observances</i>'. </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"> Walter Pater</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Among those who regularly visited St. Austin's, and enjoyed its colourful ritual (without believing yet in Christianity) was Walter Pater, aesthete and historian of the Renaissance.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">His intimate friend was Richard Charles Jackson </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(Brother à Becket), a lay brother and so-called professor of Church History at the </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">priory.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At Pater's request Jackson wrote a poem for his birthday:</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>Your darling soul I say is en-flamed with love for me;</i></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>Your very eyes do move I cry with sympathy:</i></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>Your darling feet and hands are blessings ruled by love,</i></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>As forth was sent from out the Ark a turtle dove ! </i></span><br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Walter Horatio Pater (4 August 1839 – 30 July 1894) was an English essayist, literary and art critic, and writer of fiction. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">Pater's writings were exercised a considerable influence in intellectual</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. The principles of what would be known as the 'Aesthetic Movement' were partly traceable to him, and his effect was particularly felt on one of the movement's leading proponents, Oscar Wilde, who paid tribute to him in The Critic as Artist (1891). </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Many of Pater's works focus on male beauty, friendship and love, either in a Platonic way or, obliquely, in a more physical way.</span></div>
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A slightly less bizarre foundation was the 'Anglican Congregation of the Primitive Observance of the Holy Rule of St. Benedict'.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-qKQw0Icv9K0/UqeRc6E38PI/AAAAAAAAVHk/LT6p-iTTxTw/s1600/Saint+Aelred+(1109-1167)+-+patron+saint+of+gay+friendship+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="240" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-qKQw0Icv9K0/UqeRc6E38PI/AAAAAAAAVHk/LT6p-iTTxTw/w187-h240/Saint+Aelred+(1109-1167)+-+patron+saint+of+gay+friendship+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="187" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St. Aelred<br />
Cistercian Abbot of Rievaulx</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This was founded in 1896 by a former medical student, Benjamin (Aelred) Carlyle, who had been fascinated by the monastic life since the age of fifteen, when he had founded a secret religious brotherhood at his public school.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">His choice of the religious name of 'Aelred', after a twelfth-century Cistercian abbot of Rievaulx who had written treatises on 'spiritual friendships' was a deliberate one, for a biography of St. Aelred by Newman's companion, J. O. Dalgairns, had revealed to him '<i>a monastic world in which natural and spiritual relations could be fused</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">John Dalgairns (21 October 1818 – 6 April 1876), English Roman Catholic priest, was born in Guernsey.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He attended Elizabeth College, Guernsey, from where he was awarded an Open Scholarship to Exeter College, Oxford.</span><br /><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St Thomas Aquinas</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0zVQSIU8iko/UqeSc0o3qwI/AAAAAAAAVHs/KFJMqF5jr04/s1600/Louis+Veuillot+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="253" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-0zVQSIU8iko/UqeSc0o3qwI/AAAAAAAAVHs/KFJMqF5jr04/w206-h253/Louis+Veuillot+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" width="206" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Louis Veuillot</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">About the age of seventeen he entered Exeter College, Oxford, and soon after taking his degree he contributed a letter to Louis Veuillot's ultramontane organ 'L'Univers', on "Anglican Church Parties," which gave him considerable repute. Together with Mark Pattison and others, he translated the 'Catena aurea' of St Thomas Aquinas, a commentary on the Gospels, taken from the works of the Fathers.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">He was a contributor to Newman's 'Lives of the English Saints', for which he wrote the beautiful studies on the Cistercian Saints. The 'Life of St Stephen Harding' has been translated into several languages. Under the influence of the Italian missionary Blessed Dominic Barberi, Dalgairns became a Roman Catholic in 1845, and was ordained priest in the following year. He joined his friend John Henry Newman in Rome, and, together with him, entered the 'Congregation of the Oratory'.</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-1M7GHBADZjg/UqeNU3iPifI/AAAAAAAAVHM/U_nMVcN25k8/s1600/Caldey+Island+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="182" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-1M7GHBADZjg/UqeNU3iPifI/AAAAAAAAVHM/U_nMVcN25k8/w408-h182/Caldey+Island+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="408" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Caldey Island Community (Abbey)</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-d2xXQxIOR7w/UqeMy3TrRWI/AAAAAAAAVHE/NE5b-3xex7w/s1600/+Aelred+Carlyle+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-d2xXQxIOR7w/UqeMy3TrRWI/AAAAAAAAVHE/NE5b-3xex7w/s200/+Aelred+Carlyle+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" width="135" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Aelred Carlyle</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Aelred Carlyle was a man of dynamic personality, hypnotic eyes, and extraordinary imagination. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In 1906 his community made its permanent home on Caldey Island, off the coast of south Wales (outside Anglican diocesan jurisdiction), where, largely on borrowed money, he built a splendidly furnished monastery in a fanciful style of architecture.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-86mpC2WcHI4/UqePXRZjcTI/AAAAAAAAVHY/wEasA2PcNuk/s1600/Caldey+Island+Abbey+-+Pontifical+High+Mass+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-86mpC2WcHI4/UqePXRZjcTI/AAAAAAAAVHY/wEasA2PcNuk/s200/Caldey+Island+Abbey+-+Pontifical+High+Mass+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="141" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Caldey Island Abbey<br />
Pontifical High Mass</td></tr>
</tbody></table><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The life of this enclosed Benedictine community centred upon an ornate chapel, where the thirty or so tonsured and cowled monks sang the monastic offices and celebrated Mass in Latin according to the Roman rite.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">As there was nothing like it anywhere else in the Church of England, the island abbey inevitably became a resort for ecclesiastical sightseers, and many young men were drawn to join the community out of personal affection for Carlyle.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The self-styled Lord Abbot of Caldey introduced practices into the life of his monastery which many outsiders, accustomed to the austere atmosphere of the existing Anglican men's communities, found disconcerting.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Frederick Rolfe</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1tuKAUSJ6qQ/UqeKYrZSTGI/AAAAAAAAVGw/LicvqKisqe4/s1600/Frederick+William+Rolfe+-+Tito+Biondi+at+Lake+Nemi+photograph+by+Rolfe+ca.+1890%E2%80%9392+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="333" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-1tuKAUSJ6qQ/UqeKYrZSTGI/AAAAAAAAVGw/LicvqKisqe4/w229-h333/Frederick+William+Rolfe+-+Tito+Biondi+at+Lake+Nemi+photograph+by+Rolfe+ca.+1890%E2%80%9392+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="229" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Tito Biondi at Lake Nemi<br />
photograph by Rolfe ca. 1890–92 </td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'Stories Toto Told Me' by Baron Corvo (Frederick Rolfe), which had originally appeared in 'The Yellow Book', were often read aloud to the assembled monks at recreation time, and during the summer months they regularly went <i>sea-bathing in the nude</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Frederick William Rolfe, better known as Baron Corvo, and also calling himself 'Frederick William Serafino Austin Lewis Mary Rolfe', (July 22, 1860 – October 25, 1913), was an English writer, artist, and photographer. Frederick Rolfe was entirely comfortable with his homosexuality, and associated and corresponded with a number of other gay Englishmen. Early in his life he wrote a fair amount of idealistic but mawkish poetry about boy martyrs and the like, and these and his Toto stories contain pederastic elements.. As he himself matured, Rolfe’s settled sexual preference was for late adolescents.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Nor did Carlyle make any secret of his <i>liking for charming young men</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'<i>Spiritual friendships were not discouraged</i>', recalled his biographer, himself a former member of the Caldey community:</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'<i>and their expression sometimes took a form which would not be found In any normal monastery to-day. . . . Embraces, ceremonial and non-ceremonial, were regarded as symbolical of fraternal charity, so our variant of the Roman rite permitted a real hug and kisses on the cheek between the giver and the recipient of the Pax Domini at the conventual Mass</i>.'</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Not surprisingly, for this and other reasons, the more conservative Anglo- Catholics regarded the Caldey Benedictines with deep distrust.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The bubble burst in March 1913 when Carlyle and twenty-two of his monks 'heavily in debt and convinced by the Anglo-Catholic Bishop Charles Gore that their liturgical and devotional usages could be defended only on a papal basis of authority' were received into the Roman Catholic church.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The community continued in existence with Carlyle as abbot.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Then in 1921 he suddenly resigned his abbacy and went to Canada, accompanied by another monk from Caldey, to work as a Roman Catholic missionary priest in British Columbia.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">He renewed his monastic vows shortly before his death in England in 1955.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Anglo-Catholic Priests</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JIaURonZHlI/Uqi9wWQV3UI/AAAAAAAAVN8/pmLfTeZ0oDU/s1600/Anglo+Catholic+Vestments+2+-+Martin+Travers+-++Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford+copy.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="238" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-JIaURonZHlI/Uqi9wWQV3UI/AAAAAAAAVN8/pmLfTeZ0oDU/w236-h238/Anglo+Catholic+Vestments+2+-+Martin+Travers+-++Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford+copy.png" width="236" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Liturgical Vestments<br />
Martin Travers</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The world of many Anglo-Catholic clergy was overwhelmingly masculine.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Some urban parishes were staffed exclusively by unmarried priests, who lived together in clergy houses.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A significant minority was committed to celibacy.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Among the more extreme Anglo-Catholics, for a priest to 'commit matrimony' was considered to be not only a profound betrayal of the Catholic priestly role, but also an act of personal disloyalty to those who remained celibate.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The biographies of Anglo-Catholic notables reveal a number of discreetly drawn examples of deep friendships between men, and of priests who were known for their remarkable ability to work with 'lads' and young men.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-W0ktZ6udsUE/UqjP7JkgDtI/AAAAAAAAVOM/v-S21u4J_BY/s1600/Pusey+House+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="223" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-W0ktZ6udsUE/UqjP7JkgDtI/AAAAAAAAVOM/v-S21u4J_BY/s320/Pusey+House+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Pusey House - Oxford</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The possibility of moral danger was widely recognised.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Vincent Stuckey Coles, librarian and later principal of Pusey House, Oxford, from 1884 to 1909, had realised while still a schoolboy, declared his biographer, that his '<i>beautiful and ennobling love for his friends might co-exist with much that is faulty and ill-regulated, and even with much that is corrupt, and that, like all passionate enthusiasms, it has untold capacities for good but also carries within it possibilities for evil</i>'.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OFRVYtVrhjM/UqjQ6htMFWI/AAAAAAAAVOc/IczIQyLjMWE/s1600/Pusey+House+Chapel+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="252" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-OFRVYtVrhjM/UqjQ6htMFWI/AAAAAAAAVOc/IczIQyLjMWE/w370-h252/Pusey+House+Chapel+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="370" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Pusey House Chapel</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xm3AQ-Ix5K4/UqjQKTGHchI/AAAAAAAAVOU/SReFPts5bHk/s1600/Mass+at+Pusey+House+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="247" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-xm3AQ-Ix5K4/UqjQKTGHchI/AAAAAAAAVOU/SReFPts5bHk/w164-h247/Mass+at+Pusey+House+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="164" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Mass at Pusey House</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Pusey House is a religious institution located in St Giles', Oxford, immediately to the south of Pusey Street. It is firmly rooted in the Anglo-Catholic tradition of the Church of England. Known as a "House of Piety and Learning", it is associated with, but is not part of, the University of Oxford. Pusey House was opened in 1884 in part as a memorial to Edward Bouverie Pusey. Worship in the Chapel of the Resurrection is in accordance with the Catholic tradition in the Church of England.</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Gerard Manley Hopkins</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Digby Mackworth Dolben</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It is significant that among Coles's circle of Anglo-Catholic friends at Eton and Oxford in the 1860s had been Digby Mackworth Dolben, whose religious poetry, written before his early death in 1867, has been described as perfect <i>Uranian</i> verse', and Gerard Manley Hopkins, who apparently became strongly attracted to Dolben, and channelled his own anguished feelings into a series of sonnets.</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Dolben caused considerable scandal at school by his exhibitionist behaviour. He marked his romantic attachment to another pupil a year older than he was, Martin Le Marchant Gosselin, by writing love poetry. He also defied his strict Protestant upbringing by joining a <i>High Church Puseyite</i> group of pupils. He then claimed allegiance to the <i>Order of St Benedict</i>, affecting a monk's habit. He was considering a conversion to <i>Roman Catholicism. </i>Dolben drowned in the River Welland when bathing with the ten year old son of his tutor, Rev. C. E. Prichard, Rector of South Luffenham. He was aged 19 and preparing to go up to Oxford.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Gerard Manley Hopkins, S.J. (28 July 1844 – 8 June 1889) was an English poet, Roman Catholic convert, and Jesuit priest, whose posthumous fame established him among the leading Victorian poets. His experimental explorations in prosody (especially sprung rhythm) and his use of imagery established him as a daring innovator in a period of largely traditional verse. During this time at Balliol College, Oxford </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">he studied with the prestigious writer and critic Walter Pater (see above), who tutored him in 1866 and who remained a friend till September 1879 when Hopkins left Oxford. H</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">e found it hard to accept his sexual attraction to other men, including a deep infatuation for Digby Mackworth Dolben (see above). It was during a time of intense scrupulosity that Hopkins seems to have begun confronting his strong homoerotic impulses, and begun to consider choosing the cloister. In July he decided to become a Catholic. Newman received him into the Church on 21 October 1866. He is thought to have suffered throughout his life from what today might be diagnosed as either bipolar disorder or chronic unipolar depression, and battled a deep sense of melancholic anguish.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Uranian is a 19th-century term that referred to a person of a third sex - originally, someone with "a female psyche in a male body" who is sexually attracted to men. It is believed to be an English adaptation of the German word Urning, which was first published by activist Karl Heinrich Ulrichs (1825–95) in a series of five booklets (1864–65) which were collected under the title 'Forschungen über das Räthsel der mannmännlichen Liebe' ("Research into the Riddle of Man-Male Love"). Ulrich developed his terminology before the first public use of the term "homosexual", which appeared in 1869. The word Uranian (Urning) was derived by Ulrichs from the Greek goddess Aphrodite Urania, who was created out of god Uranus' testicles. Therefore it stands for homosexual gender.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">An Anglo-Catholic tract published in 1922, advocating clerical celibacy, warned priests </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">against friendships with members of both sexes.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Friendship with a woman might lead to marriage: '<i>similar caution is necessary with regard to undue intimacy with boys. If the Cross weighs heavily upon some of us in these respects let us pray for grace to be generous in bearing it</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Male friendships within the church took many forms.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At a later date, in a </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">different context, some of them would undoubtedly have been regarded as homosexual.</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The case of Henry Scott Holland, High Church theologian and social theorist, is instructive. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Having deliberately renounced marriage as a 'willing sacrifice' at the age of thirty-five, he wrote of his reactions on hearing of a friend's engagement: '<i>The sudden sense that I alone of all my friends am really going to be wifeless, is born in upon me with unwonted energy, and makes me feel strange, and wondering; and I clench my teeth a little, and feel sterner (but not less resolute)'</i>.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-tvp5vAOTroY/UqjYditsiRI/AAAAAAAAVPE/h9k-Rc9u-hk/s1600/St+Paul's+Cathedral+-+Henry+Scott+Holland+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="239" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-tvp5vAOTroY/UqjYditsiRI/AAAAAAAAVPE/h9k-Rc9u-hk/w192-h239/St+Paul's+Cathedral+-+Henry+Scott+Holland+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="192" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St. Paul's Cathedral - London</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Later in 1903 when Scott Holland was a canon of St. Paul's Cathedral, London, he appointed as his secretary a young Oxford graduate, Laurence Stratford, who became a '<i>real and close friend</i>', entering fully into Scott Holland's many interests.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It was difficult to speak adequately of his devotion, and when at last he took up a government post Scott Holland found the parting a '<i>bitter grief</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Priests who worked among undergraduates at Oxford and Cambridge had many opportunities for intimate relationships with the young men in their </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">pastoral care. </span><br /><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-_WliBiKq6ic/UqjZQyAaKTI/AAAAAAAAVPQ/ef6p0bEB3Ug/s1600/Ronald+Knox+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="258" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-_WliBiKq6ic/UqjZQyAaKTI/AAAAAAAAVPQ/ef6p0bEB3Ug/w249-h258/Ronald+Knox+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="249" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Ronald Knox</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">For example the friendship of Ronald Knox, when chaplain of </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Trinity College, Oxford, before the first world war, with a handsome and brilliant undergraduate, Guy Lawrence, was the 'strongest human affection' of his early manhood.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Trinity College - Oxford</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Ronald Arbuthnott Knox (17 February 1888 – 24 August 1957) was an English priest, author and theologian.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Knox had attended Eton College and won several scholarships at Balliol College, Oxford. He was ordained an Anglican priest in 1912 and was appointed chaplain of Trinity College, Oxford, but he left in 1917 upon his <i>conversion to Catholicism</i>. In 1918 he was ordained a Catholic priest. Knox wrote many books of essays and novels. Directed by his religious superiors, he re-translated the Latin Vulgate Bible into English, using Hebrew and Greek sources, beginning in 1936.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Forbes Robinson, a theological lecturer and college fellow at Cambridge in the 1890s, was remembered for his '<i>extraordinary interest</i>' in his undergraduate acquaintances: '<i>He loved some men with an intensity of feeling impossible to describe. It was almost pain to him. If he loved a man he loved him with a passionate love (no weaker expression win do)</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">He prayed for those he loved for hours at a time.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Another type of friendship was between priests of similar ages who were engaged in a common enterprise or who worked in the same parish.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">George Douglas Tinling </td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St. Clement's - Bournemouth</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At St. Clement's, Bournemouth, for example, in the 1870s, there was a deep if outwardly undemonstrative relationship between the vicar, George Douglas Tinling ('artistic, graceful in manner') and his curate, Robert Gray Scurfield ('an enthusiastic sportsman').</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">These lifelong friends are said to have held everything in common - 't<i>heir faith, ideals, aims, occupations and possessions</i>.'</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At the Anglo-Catholic outpost of St. Matthew's, Sheffield, the formidable George Campbell Ommanney (vicar from 1882 to 1936) was buried at his request in the same grave as a favourite curate, who had died in the parish many years previously.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">These and other relationships which have been recorded can only be a small fraction of the whole.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Anglo-Catholicism and the Literary Scene</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">From the mid-1880s, when a new generation of literary men began accepting homosexual sentiment as '<i>part of the whole range of feeling which waited to be explored</i>', some claimed that homosexuality was often linked to the '<i>artistic temperament</i>'.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-gj8yVai5ik0/UqjkrI7fE9I/AAAAAAAAVQM/miwjjaV4wnc/s1600/The+Spirit+Lamp+-+Oxford+-+Alfred+Douglas+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-gj8yVai5ik0/UqjkrI7fE9I/AAAAAAAAVQM/miwjjaV4wnc/s200/The+Spirit+Lamp+-+Oxford+-+Alfred+Douglas+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="137" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">The Spirit Lamp</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">St. Sebastian</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">During the 1890s, a crucial decade in the development of a distinctive homosexual identity, there were many links between this homosexual literary culture and Catholic religion, in both its <i>Roman Catholic </i>and <i>Anglo-Catholic</i> forms.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">There is, for example, the evidence of the literary magazines, 'The Artist', 'The Spirit Lamp', and 'The Chameleon', which, during this period, published many poems, essays, and stories with homosexual themes.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Frederick Rolfe, who in 1890 had been expelled from the Scots College in Rome after five months of training for the Roman Catholic priesthood, wrote poems for 'The Artist' on St. Sebastian and other subjects.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Lord Alfred Douglas</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The 'Spirit Lamp', an Oxford undergraduate magazine, was edited from December </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1892 to June 1893 by Lord Alfred Douglas, who turned it into 'an expensively produced and serious organ of the aestheticism created by Oscar Wilde', his </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">lover.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Lord Alfred Bruce Douglas (22 October 1870 – 20 March 1945), nicknamed 'Bosie', was a British author, poet and translator, better known as the intimate friend and lover of the writer Oscar Wilde. Much of his early poetry was Uranian in theme. In 1911, Douglas embraced Roman Catholicism, as Oscar Wilde had also done earlier. In 1920 Douglas founded a fiercely anti-Semitic magazine, 'Plain English', in which he printed numerous anti-Jewish diatribes, made claims of "<i>human sacrifice among the Jews,</i>" and publicly advocated 'The Protocols of the Elders of Zion'</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Douglas died of congestive heart failure at Lancing in West Sussex on 20 March 1945 at the age of 74.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Several of its contributors subsequently became Anglo-Catholic priests.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'The Chameleon', which was edited by John Francis Bloxam of Exeter College, Oxford, and lasted for only one issue (December 1894), acquired notoriety for an unsigned short story, 'The Priest and the Acolyte'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Although written by Bloxam, this was widely attributed to Wilde, and was used by the prosecution at his first trial in 1895.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It was an emotional tale - '<i>the first piece of English fiction to echo the firmly-founded French syndrome of the naughty priest</i>' - </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">about the passionate love of a young priest for a fourteen-year-old golden- haired boy.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Following discovery by the priest's rector, and the certainty of disgrace, the two lovers take poison in the chalice at a private Mass,and die together, embracing on the steps of the altar.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This was Bloxam's last published work.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Following his ordination in 1897 he was an assistant priest at various Anglo-Catholic churches in London, Including St. Mary's, Graham Street, in the fashionable West End.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">(It was </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">attended by the Anglo-Catholic lay leader Viscount Halifax, and by his son Lord </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Irwin, subsequently Viceroy of India.)</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">After service as a chaplain in the first world war, during which he was twice decorated for gallantry, he became vicar of the East End parish of St. Saviour, Hoxton.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">This Anglo-Catholic church was so '<i>Romanised</i>' that its priests used the Latin Missal and followed all Roman </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">devotions.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">After Bloxam's death in 1928 a former clerical colleague wrote in the 'Church Times' of his 'pastoral genius', his work for the young, and his '<i>passionate love of beauty</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In regard to his personal character it would be hard to say whether he was more remarkable for his power of winning affection, or for his lavishness in bestowing it.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Wilhelm von Gloeden<br />
'St Sebastian'</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Marc-André Raffalovich</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Another literary figure of the 1890s, who sought to integrate the two worlds of homosexuality and Catholic religion was Marc-André Raffalovich</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A member of a rich émigré Russo-Jewish family, he was converted to Roman Catholicism in </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">1896, shortly after the Wilde trials.</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Marc-André Raffalovich (11 September 1864 – 14 February 1934) was a Jewish poet and writer on homosexuality, best known today for his patronage of the arts and for his lifelong relationship with the poet John Gray. In 1896, under the influence of John Gray, Raffalovich embraced Catholicism and joined the tertiary order of the Dominicans as Brother Sebastian in honour of Saint Sebastian.</span><br /><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">John Gray</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">At the same time Gray was ordained a priest. In 1905, Gray was appointed to the parish of St Patrick in the working class Cowgate area of Edinburgh. Raffalovich followed and settled down nearby. He contributed greatly to the cost of St Peter's Church in Morningside, Edinburgh, of which Gray was appointed the first parish priest. In Whitehouse Terrace, Raffalovich established a successful salon. His guests included Henry James, Lady Margaret Sackville, Compton Mackenzie, Max Beerbohm and Herbert Read.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Raffalovich's attempts to reconcile his homosexuality and his Catholic beliefs pushed him further into his criticism of the early gay liberation movement; in 1910, he finally stopped commenting altogether on the subject which had occupied such a place in his life. Instead, he focused on his Edinburgh salon and his support of young artists. </span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, 'Times New Roman', serif;">He died in 1934, the same year as his lifelong companion, John Gray.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Raffalovich considered that those of the higher type of homosexual to be the ones who made the best priests followed by heterosexuals who were also able to embrace celibacy.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In the same year he published a study of homosexuality, 'Uranisme et Unisexualit</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">é'</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">, in which he argued that homosexuality (<i>inversion</i>) and heterosexuality are two equally legitimate manifestations of human sexuality, rejected the current view that homosexuality was a disease, and advocated a life of chastity, supported by friendship, as the Christian ideal.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Many others associated with the homosexual literary world of the 1890s and early 1900s found a religious home in either the Anglo-Catholicism of the Church of England, or the Roman Catholic church.</span><br /><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Lionel Pigot Johnson</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Among those who joined the latter were Frederick Rolfe, Lord Alfred Douglas, Lionel Johnson, and John Gray, the <i>intimate friend</i> of Raffalovich, who eventually became a Roman Catholic parish priest in Edinburgh.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Oscar Wilde</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Lionel Pigot Johnson (15 March 1867 – 4 October 1902) was an English poet, essayist and critic. He was born at Broadstairs, and educated at Winchester College and New College, Oxford, graduating in 1890. He became a <i>Catholic convert</i> in 1891. He lived a solitary life in London, struggling with <i>alcoholism</i> and his <i>repressed homosexuality</i>. He died of a stroke after a fall in the street, though it was said to be a fall from a barstool in the Green Dragon in Fleet Street.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The most famous was Oscar Wilde himself, who had become attracted to Roman Catholicism - '<i>a Church which simply enthrals me by its fascination'</i>, while an undergraduate at Oxford in the 1870s, though he was not received into the Roman church until his deathbed in 1900.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">During Wilde's final trial in 1895 he received aid from a prominent Anglo-Catholic socialist priest, Stewart Headlam - '<i>himself something of an aesthete</i>' - who put up part of his bail, accompanied him to the courtroom each day, and scandalised most of his own Christian Socialist supporters in the process.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Robert Hugh Benson</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Another convert with a prolific literary output was Robert Hugh Benson, youngest son of Archbishop E. W. Benson of Canterbury, and a former priest member of the (Anglo-Catholic) Community of the Resurrection.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">As a young man, he recalled, he had rejected the idea of marriage as '<i>quite inconceivable</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Then in 1904, soon after his ordination as a Roman Catholic priest, he formed a passionate friendship with Rolfe.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">For two years this relationship involved letters '<i>not only weekly, but at </i></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>times daily, and of an intimate character, exhaustingly charged with emotion</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">All letters were subsequently destroyed, probably by Benson's brother.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Several of that group of <i>Uranian</i> poets of the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries who wrote on the theme of '<i>boy-love'</i> were clergymen in the <i>Church of England</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Robert Hugh Benson (18 November 1871 – 19 October 1914) was an Anglican pastor who joined the Roman Catholic Church (1903) where he was ordained priest in 1904. Youngest son of Edward White Benson (Archbishop of Canterbury) and his wife, Mary, and younger brother of Edward Frederic Benson, he was lauded in his own day as one of the leading figures in English literature, having written the notable book - 'Lord of The World'. Benson was appointed a supernumerary private chamberlain to the Pope in 1911 and, consequently, styled as Monsignor.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Among them were Edwin Emmanuel Bradford, Samuel Elsworth Cottam, George Gabriel Scott Gillett, Edward Cracroft Lefroy, and Edmund St. Gascoigne Mackie.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">During their ecclesiastical careers Cottam and Gillett were associated with a number of well-known Anglo-Catholic churches in London and elsewhere, though the latter turned his literary talents from writing poetry on <i>Uranian</i> themes at Oxford in the nineties to editing an Anglican missionary periodical, and writing devotional and comic verse in the distinctive Anglo-Catholic genre.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Cottam was an enthusiastic collector of <i>Uranian</i> poetry, and other publications, and (with Bradford) was a member of a secret <i>homosexual society</i> called the 'Order of Chaerone', founded In the late 1890s, and whose members were drawn together by ties of friendship, the hope of reforming hostile attitudes, and secret rituals and symbols.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Samuel Elsworth Cottam, M.A. (1863-1943) was educated at Exeter College, Oxford, where he was a friend of Edwin Emmanuel Bradford. He was a lifelong Anglo-Catholic, unlike Bradford who later became a Modernist. Cottam and Bradford were co-Chaplains of St George's Anglican Church in Paris, France. He was later incumbent at Wootton, Vale of White Horse, where John Betjeman and W. H. Auden went to see him celebrate Sung Mass.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Cottam published a 'gay' magazine called 'Chameleon', which was produced as evidence in the trial of Oscar Wilde</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;"> Augustus Montague Summers</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A fellow member of the 'Order of Chaeronea', and a writer of <i>Uranian </i>verse was Alphonsus Joseph-Mary Augustus Montague Summers.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">As an Anglo-Catholic, he was ordained a deacon in the Church of England before being received into the <i>Roman Catholic</i> church in 1909.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Rejected from training for the Catholic priesthood (though it is probable that he subsequently received priest's orders through a schismatical source), he became a school teacher and antiquarian scholar, an author of voluminous works on Restoration drama, the Gothic novel, witchcraft, and demonology, and an active member of the 'British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Augustus Montague Summers (10 April 1880 – 10 August 1948) was an English author and clergyman. He is known primarily for his scholarly work on the English drama of the 17th century, as well as for his idiosyncratic studies on witches, vampires, and werewolves, in all of which he professed to believe. He was responsible for the first English translation, published in 1928, of the notorious 15th-century witch hunter's manual, the 'Malleus Maleficarum'. Summers was an active member of the British Society for the Study of Sex Psychology, to which he contributed an essay on the Marquis de Sade.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Summers was ordained as deacon in 1908 and worked as a curate in Bath and Bitton, in Greater Bristol. He never proceeded to higher orders, however, because of rumours of his interest in Satanism and accusations of sexual <i>impropriety with young boys</i>. Summers' first book, 'Antinous and Other Poems', published in 1907, was dedicated to the subject of <i>pederasty</i>.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Later Developments</span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br />From the early 1900s until the second world war, the public face of the Anglo-Catholic movement was <i>militant </i>and<i> uncompromising.</i></span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Many younger clergy took delight in shocking the respectable 'Church of Englandism' of the ecclesiastical establishment, personified by the canny and cautious archbishop of Canterbury, Randall Davidson.</span></div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Society of SS. Peter and Paul</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A vociferous ginger-group was the 'Society of SS. Peter and Paul', founded in 1910 on the initiative of Maurice Child, Ronald Knox (son of the staunchly Evangelical bishop of Manchester), who seceded to Rome in 1917, and Samuel Gurney, a director of the Medici Society.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The society made fun of the bishops by describing itself as 'Publishers to the Church of England', and by advertising and selling such articles as Ridley and Latimer votive-candle stands and 'The Lambeth Frankincense'.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It annoyed the authorities even more by advocating, in a series of tracts, the adoption by Anglican churches of the liturgical practices and popular devotions of the contemporary Roman Catholic church.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The ultimate aim was the 'resumption of arrested development', as if the Reformation had not happened, for only then, it was claimed, would the Church of England once again become a genuine 'church of the people'.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The Society of SS. Peter and Paul was behind the great series of Anglo-Catholic congresses held between 1920 and 1933 (the latter being the centenary celebration of the Oxford Movement), at which the Anglo-Catholics went onto the attack, and expounded the 'Catholic position' to huge and enthusiastic audiences, with the object of demonstrating that it represented nothing less than the 'true mind' of the Church of England.<br />Exerting considerable influence at the centre of the Society of SS. Peter and Paul, and later as general secretary of the Anglo-Catholic congress organisation, was Maurice Child, '<i>the mystery man</i>' of the Anglo-Catholic movement, '<i>who was regarded by critics as a flippant and pleasure-loving sybarite', </i>and by admirers as<i> 'a dedicated priest of remarkable ability</i>'.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Child was of a type that popped up regularly in Anglo-Catholic circles between the wars.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A strong believer in clerical celibacy, he was also rich, witty, versatile, a bon viveur - nicknamed 'the Playboy of the Western Church'.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In London he lived with a <i>male companion</i> at a succession of fashionable addresses, where he entertained friends from many different walks of life.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">His glittering parties bore little resemblance to the usual clerical social gatherings.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At one of them a young visitor was startled to see the Lady Margaret Professor of Divinity from Oxford in conversation over a cocktail with the film actress Tallulah Bankhead.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">As a skilled counsellor, an old friend recalled after his death in 1950, his 'greatest forte was with young men'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In examining the <i>homosexual component</i> of early twentieth-century Anglo-Catholicism, it would be quite wrong to imply that more than a minority of Anglo-Catholic clergy or laity were homosexually inclined.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Nevertheless, in cities such as London, Brighton, and Oxford, and other places in the south of England which had a high concentration of Anglo-Catholic churches, there are indications that a male homosexual subculture was associated with the more flamboyant wing of Anglo-Catholicism.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In some London churches visitors noticed an unusually high proportion of young men in the congregation.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In the industrial Midlands and the North, on the other hand, where 'Low Churchmanship' was dominant, and Anglo-Catholics were on the defensive, the correlation was much less likely.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">There are references to this male homosexual subculture</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"> in the posthumously published autobiography of Tom Driberg (Lord Bradwell), who was both a prominent Labour member of parliament, a devout Anglo-Catholic, and well-known in upper-class circles as a homosexual. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">There are also revealing passages in works by writers who themselves had a first-hand knowledge of both worlds.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In Evelyn Waugh's 'Brideshead Revisited' (1945) an Oxford undergraduate, newly arrived in college, is warned by his cousin: '<i>Beware of the Anglo-Catholics - they're all sodomites with unpleasant accents</i>'. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Compton Mackenzie's 'Sinister Street' (1913) and his Anglo-Catholic trilogy, 'The Altar Steps' (1922), 'The Parson's Progress' (1923), and 'The Heavenly Ladder' (1924), include many vivid and accurate descriptions of typical, often identifiable, Anglo-Catholic clergy and parishes of the 1890s and early 1900s.</span><br />
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">They are subtly permeated with hints of homosexuality.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A minor character in 'The Parson's Progress' is Father Hugh Dayrell, assistant priest at St. Cyprian's, South Kensington, - an authority on moral theology, who shows unusual interest in the works of Havelock Ellis (see above), Krafft-Ebing, and Freud, privately admits an <i>antipathy to women</i>, and is finally forced to flee the country in order to avoid an sexual scandal - which is threfore obviously of a homosexual nature.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In 'The Altar Steps' the vicar of an Anglo-Catholic slum church in London expresses his dislike of 'these churchy young fools who come simpering down in top-hats, with rosaries hanging out of their pockets'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The same novel contains an account of life at Malford Abbey in the Order of St. George (which is recognisable as the Order of St. Paul at Alton).</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Many years later an historian of Anglican monasticism recalled: '<i>Octogenarians can vouch for the truth of the period atmosphere. Even the gossip between the monks both during and outside times of recreation revive memories of the chit-chat in at least one Anglican monastic community about the turn of the century</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">More recently, the autobiography of a former administrator of the Shrine of Our Lady of Walsingham has described, with disarming frankness, the semi-conspiratorial and light-hearted atmosphere of a section of the Anglo-Catholic world of Brighton and Oxford between the wars.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Archibald Kenneth Ingram, an Anglo-Catholic lay theologian, socialist, and prolific writer, attempted in several works to integrate his sexuality with his religious beliefs.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In 1920 he contributed two pieces to a short-lived '<i>Uranian</i>' literary journal, 'The Quorum': A Magazine of Friendship, in which he advocated male comradeship as the highest relationship, and the only way to bridge the gap between social classes.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Edward Carpenter</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In his view of the positive social value of male friendships, Ingram was influenced by the writings of Edward Carpenter, who saw 'Uranian' men and women (he intermediate sex) as filling an important function as <i>reconcilers</i> and<i> interpreters,</i> and as a potential 'advance guard' in the evolution of a <i>new society</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Edward Carpenter (29 August 1844 – 28 June 1929) was an English socialist poet, philosopher, anthologist, and early gay activist. A leading figure in late 19th- and early 20th-century Britain, he was instrumental in the foundation of the Fabian Society and the Labour Party. A poet and writer, he was a close friend of Walt Whitman and Rabindranath Tagore, corresponding with many famous figures such as Annie Besant, Isadora Duncan, Havelock Ellis, Roger Fry, Mahatma Gandhi, James Keir Hardie, J. K. Kinney, Jack London, George Merrill, E D Morel, William Morris, E R Pease, John Ruskin, and Olive Schreiner.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">To the ideas of Carpenter, and the other sexual radicals, Ingram added a <i>religious justification </i>derived from his Anglo-Catholic faith: '<i>Pure love, especially so intense a love as the homogenic attachment, is not profane but divine</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'The Symbolic Island' (1924), Ingram's first novel, included among its characters an Anglo-Catholic priest, Father Evrill, who becomes the spokesman for Ingram's personal views on the need for a revitalised Anglo-Catholicism as the <i>remedy</i> for the ills of modem society.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At one point Evrill explains his close friendship with <i>young altar boy,</i> Gerald Frayne, and talks with enthusiasm of <i>a new type of youth,</i> which is coming into existence in English society -'<i>lighthearted, artistic, nature-loving, - not so exclusively, so aggressively, male, though by no means effeminat</i>e'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">These youths and young men have a '<i>much keener sense of comradeship</i>' than their forefathers, and show little romantic interest in women.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Wherever they express themselves religiously, the priest observes with satisfaction...'<i>it is always by the Catholic religion</i>.<i> </i></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>I think the type is naturally religious, because it is mystical.</i></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><i>That Catholicism should be the form of its religious expression is, I think, quite inevitable. There could be nothing else</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Ingram also wrote four books which went beyond the frontiers of Christian orthodoxy by advocating a <i>new sexual morality</i> for the '<i>new age</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In his first book on the subject, published in 1922, he described homosexuality as 'a<i> romantic cult rather than a physical vice'</i>, and reluctantly agreed that '<i>there could be no religious countenance for any physical sex-act outside the sacrament of matrimony'</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">He became increasingly radical.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">By the 1940s he was arguing that the morality or immorality of any sexual behaviour was determined by the presence or absence of love; where love was mutual there was no sin. Conventional religious opinion was outraged.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">To the extent that '<i>camp</i>' (in its meaning of 'elegantly ostentatious' or '</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">affected display') was a prominent attribute of the <i>homosexual style</i> as it developed in England from the 1890s onwards, it found ample room for expression in the worship and decoration of many Anglo-Catholic churches.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-IW3R3dhkJnQ/UqjuIN6OqbI/AAAAAAAAVQ0/VpeclWRIlz8/s1600/The+Society+of+St+Peter+and+St+Paul+-+Anglo+Catholic+High+Church+-+Anglo+Papalism+-+Roman+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="200" src="http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-IW3R3dhkJnQ/UqjuIN6OqbI/AAAAAAAAVQ0/VpeclWRIlz8/s1600/The+Society+of+St+Peter+and+St+Paul+-+Anglo+Catholic+High+Church+-+Anglo+Papalism+-+Roman+Catholic+Church+in+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" width="138" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Society of SS. Peter and Paul </td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Perhaps its most visible manifestation was the attempt, fostered by the Society of SS. Peter and Paul during the 1920s, to refurnish the interiors of English churches in baroque and rococo styles, justified on the ground that this was the living architecture of Catholic Europe.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The medieval restorations, so beloved of an earlier generation of High Churchmen, were denigrated as '<i>sterile antiquarianism British Museum religion</i>'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Under the guidance of ecclesiastical decorators such as Martin Travers, the interiors of a number of Gothic Revival churches were transformed into replicas of churches of Counter-Reformation Austria, Italy, and Spain, with gilded altars and reredoses, baroque candlesticks, tabernacles, and shrines, and ornamental cherubs.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ic2ex6z6FL0/UqoxeeMmzII/AAAAAAAAVTQ/b9avOVB3Ygk/s1600/Martin+Travers+Altar+-+Anglo+Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="267" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-Ic2ex6z6FL0/UqoxeeMmzII/AAAAAAAAVTQ/b9avOVB3Ygk/w210-h267/Martin+Travers+Altar+-+Anglo+Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Crawford.png" width="210" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Altar by Martin Travers</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TJenj5T8OUE/Uqj3664oqeI/AAAAAAAAVRA/SEEWmEmdmlQ/s1600/Self+Portrait+3+-+Martin+Travers+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="265" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-TJenj5T8OUE/Uqj3664oqeI/AAAAAAAAVRA/SEEWmEmdmlQ/w207-h265/Self+Portrait+3+-+Martin+Travers+-+Anglo-Catholicism+and+Homosexuality+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="207" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Martin Travers<br />
Self Portrait</td></tr>
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Martin Travers (born Howard Mantin Otho Travers, in Margate, Kent on 19 February 1886 – died in 1948) was an English church artist and designer, whose name is often connected with the Anglo-Catholic movement in the Church of England, especially that part of the movement which favoured a return to the Baroque style of church furnishing. He designed and constructed a number of spectacular Baroque reredoses for various Anglican churches, usually employing affordable materials such as plywood, whitewood, papier mache and embossed wallpaper to achieve the desired effect, which, regrettably, has meant that some of his work has not weathered well. Famous examples of his work in London are the reredos in St Mary's church, Pimlico, and the remarkable Churrigueresque altarpiece in St Augustine's church, South Kensington. As well as church furnishings he also designed much stained glass, and, as a draughtsman, is perhaps best known for his illustrations for the booklets and cards published by the Society of SS. Peter and Paul.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The ornamentation and fittings of these churches were luxuriant, often gaudy, and as such they were profoundly shocking to Low Church bishops and Protestant-minded laity.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">That was part of the attraction.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZT2Zef9Om-c/Uqw_lB3e00I/AAAAAAAAVWY/AUcVlB7okpE/s1600/St.+Mary+Bourne+Street+-+B%2526W+-+London+-+Martin+Travers+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="299" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-ZT2Zef9Om-c/Uqw_lB3e00I/AAAAAAAAVWY/AUcVlB7okpE/w360-h299/St.+Mary+Bourne+Street+-+B%2526W+-+London+-+Martin+Travers+-++Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="360" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Anglo-Catholic baroque</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'Anglo-Catholic baroque' was a theatrical, slightly unreal style, which reflected the restless gaiety of the 1920s, and the postwar urge to reject established social conventions.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">High Mass in an Anglican church with baroque interior decor, sung to music by Mozart or Schubert, belonged to the age of the Charleston, Theosophy, the Russian Ballet, and the first dramatic successes of Noel Coward.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The same people often sampled them all.</span></div>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">One can also sense a covert link between exotic church decoration, liturgical extravagance, and the over-ripe elegance of homosexual 'camp'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><div><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Analysis</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">What were the reasons for this apparent correlation between <i>male homosexuality</i> and <i>Anglo-Catholic religion</i> ?</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Some homosexuals recognized the existence of an aesthetic attraction, for their sense of the <i>numinous</i> was aroused by the elaborate ceremonial and sensuous symbolism of Catholic worship.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-qO9xeayJUpw/Uq2TJuUGTvI/AAAAAAAAVjc/u5ohnD3LIl0/s1600/Compton+Mackenzie+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="260" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-qO9xeayJUpw/Uq2TJuUGTvI/AAAAAAAAVjc/u5ohnD3LIl0/w183-h260/Compton+Mackenzie+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="183" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Compton Mackenzie</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">'The Church! How wonderful !', exclaims Arthur Wilmot, a homosexual poet in Compton Mackenzie's 'Sinister Street' (set in the 1890s): '<i>The dim Gothic glooms, the sombre hues of stained glass, the incense-wreathed acolytes, the muttering priests, the bedizened banners and altars and images. Ah, elusive and particoloured vision that once was mine !</i>' (Mackenzie, Sinister Street).</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Compton Mackenzie, (1883–1972) was a prolific writer of fiction, biography, histories, and memoir, as well as a cultural commentator, and raconteur. He converted to Catholicism in 1914.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">And in Bloxam's story, 'The Priest and the Acolyte', one can recognize the author's own voice in the priest's attempt to explain his nature - '<i>The whole aesthetic tendency of my soul was intensely attracted by the wonderful mysteries of Christianity, the artistic beauty of our services. . . . My delight is in the aesthetic beauty of the services, the ecstasy of devotion, the passionate fervour that comes with long fasting and meditation'</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Aesthetic attraction, however, is not a sufficient explanation, simply because many homosexual men were not aesthetes, and many aesthetes were not Anglo-Catholics.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The ideology and structure of Anglo-Catholicism in the context of English Christianity must also be considered.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In the eyes of their Protestant opponents, Anglo-Catholics were no more than 'Anglo-Romanists', an impression which was reinforced by the small but steady stream of Anglo- Catholic clergy and laypeople who seceded to Rome, 'the home of truth'. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">But this verdict is misleading, for the intellectual and social ethos of the Anglo-Catholic wing of the Church of England was very <i>different</i> from that of English Roman Catholicism.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Almost all its leaders, clerical and lay, shared a common <i>upper-class</i> background of public school and ancient university.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Among its intellectuals the dominant theology from the 1880s until the 1930s was a <i>liberal Catholicism,</i> which accepted the legitimacy of <i>biblical criticism</i>, used contemporary philosophical and scientific concepts in the study of theology, and asserted the central importance of the Incarnation - the historical Christ as 'both fully God and fully man' in its dogmatic system.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The doctrine of the Incarnation revealed the glory of the Church, but it also revealed the glory that is in man, whose nature has been united with the divine.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In the theology of the Incarnation, human nature was fallen but <i>not </i>depraved; natural man could be raised to holiness through the sacraments of the church; Christianity should penetrate and transform the entire social order.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">A belief that the Incarnation is fulfilled in the growing together of every human activity led some Anglo-Catholic priests in the direction of Christian Socialism - the idea of a society based upon the principles of cooperation and brotherhood, as symbolised by the Christian sacraments.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">It also encouraged a slightly more accommodating attitude towards homosexuality than was commonly found elsewhere in the Christian church.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At a time when hostility to homosexuality was intense, and when the few public statements on the subject by church leaders were full of references to ' a shameful vice', 'a grievous sin', and 'a perversion', it would appear that many Anglo-Catholic priests were inclined to the view that homosexual feelings were <i>not</i> in themselves sinful; they should be disciplined and controlled, and <i>channelled</i> into the service of others.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-yFKfCsbppGU/Uq2TyQ0Zr8I/AAAAAAAAVjk/SpZ5VrNpfwM/s1600/All+Saints+-+Margaret+Street+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="298" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-yFKfCsbppGU/Uq2TyQ0Zr8I/AAAAAAAAVjk/SpZ5VrNpfwM/w399-h298/All+Saints+-+Margaret+Street+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.jpg" width="399" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">All Saints - Margaret Street</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The advice given in a tract entitled 'Letter to a Homosexual' (1955) by the vicar of a leading Anglo-Catholic church in London (All Saints, Margaret Street) may be taken as representing a well-established Anglo-Catholic viewpoint, though this was the first time that it had been presented for a popular readership: '<i>You cannot help being homosexual: nor can you help it if your sexual feelings are very strong. That is a matter of natural endowment. . . . So it is much better to reconcile yourself to the fact that you are homosexual in outlook and make the best of it. I would go further: I say that your homosexual bias is to be used for the glory of God'.</i></span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">The reactions of homosexual men to the moral condemnation of the church varied widely.</span><br />
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-0T6ezNa_cdk/Uq2VFkYZEJI/AAAAAAAAVjw/Ea8-ZpiNJ-o/s1600/Auricular+Confession+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" height="375" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-0T6ezNa_cdk/Uq2VFkYZEJI/AAAAAAAAVjw/Ea8-ZpiNJ-o/w307-h375/Auricular+Confession+-+Anglo-Catholicism+-+England+-+Peter+Cawford.png" width="307" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Auricular Confession</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">If many who had been brought up in the Church of England, or in a nonconformist denomination, were alienated from institutional religion, others were drawn to Anglo-Catholicism because of the attitude of its priests and the method they employed to deal with sexual problems and moral dilemmas - 'auricular confession'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Unlike the conventional Anglican parson, Anglo-Catholic clergymen fulfilled a sharply defined priestly role, and had been trained in their theological colleges to be discreet and unshockable confessors.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In the right sense of the word, they were professionals: they knew their job through and though, On the subject of sex, the teaching of their moral theology textbooks was less detailed and less legalistic than the corresponding Roman Catholic authorities, but no less rigorous.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Although homosexuality was not specifically mentioned in Francis Belton's widely used 'Manual for Confessors' (1916), his advice in other areas of sexual behavior was uncompromising.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Priests were advised to forbid close friendships between young men and women before </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">marriage as dangerous.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Even after the modification by the 1930 Lambeth Conference of the Anglican church's traditional opposition to artificial birth control, Belton's view was unchanged: the prevention of conception was never justified.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">His viewpoint on contraception was not universally accepted by Anglo-Catholic clergy, for a significant minority defended the legitimacy of birth control at a time when it was by no means fashionable to do so.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In other areas of morality Anglo-Catholic teaching was substantially identical to the Roman Catholic position.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Homosexual acts were judged to be intrinsically sinful, though the degree of moral guilt varied according to the circumstances of each case.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">For '<i>true homosexuals</i>', declared an influential guide for Anglican confessors, '<i>the only treatment lies in the strengthening of the will to resist temptation'</i>.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Nevertheless orthodox doctrine was often tempered with pastoral sympathy.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Especially before the 1950s, when homosexuality was a taboo subject, many Anglo-Catholic priests were able, under the seal of the confessional, to discuss the personal problems associated with it without show of embarrassment or open hostility, and without informing the police.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">There was also the inherent attraction of identifiable and continuous groupings of homosexuals. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Many homosexual men, unmarried and therefore outside the regular family structure, had a strong need for companionship with others like themselves.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Before the liberalization of the late 1960s, when public meeting places for homosexual men outside London were virtually non-existent, and when pubs and clubs in London were difficult to find, and regularly harassed by the police, Anglo-Catholicism provided a visible network of supportive and protective institutions - not only in England, but also scattered through the Anglican church in the cities of the United States, Canada, South Africa, and Australia.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Within these Anglo-Catholic congregations, homosexual men, compelled by social hostility to remain invisible, and avoid social disgrace, could make contact with each other and establish discreet friendships across class barriers.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Looking back at London's homosexual subculture of the 1930s, a recent writer in the weekly 'Gay News' recalled that many of his own youthful contemporaries had attended fashionable churches where contacts were made with rather rich 'gays'.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Some were left substantial legacies.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At the heart of the correlation between Anglo-Catholicism and homosexuality was an affinity in outlook between a sexual minority and a minority religious movement within the established church.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Both were at variance with entrenched beliefs and both outraged the older generation.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In middle and upper-class circles, in the inter-war years, an involvement in the homosexual subculture could be a means of demonstrating rebellion, for since the scandals of the 1890s heterosexuality had been the 'key test of respectability': 'What better way therefore to declare one's contempt for the official mores of society than to take a whirl among homosexuals ?'</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Similarly, until the second world war, Anglo-Catholics were a consciously defined party within the Church of England - a '<i>Church-within-the-Church</i>', in perpetual conflict with the dominant norms of the establishment.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In many dioceses Anglo-Catholic congregations were ostracised by their bishops, and isolated from neighbouring parishes because of doctrinal and liturgical disobedience.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">In return they viewed the '<i>official diocese ... with indifference, suspicion, or even hostility</i>'.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px; text-align: center;">Hoy House - Walsingham</td></tr>
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<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">With the adoption of Roman Catholic baroque furnishings and ceremonial, they tended to become '<i>a people apart'</i>, and their churches almost unrecognisable as Anglican.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">At the same time, however, many fashionable Anglo-Catholic churches offered all the trappings of outward respectability, as well as the security and stability of ancient rituals and traditions. </span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Despite their marginal position, Anglo-Catholics chose to remain within the established church, and liked to regard their religion as '<i>much smarter</i>' than its rival, Roman Catholicism.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">Anglo-Catholicism was thus both <i>elitist</i> and <i>nonconformist</i>, combining a sense of </span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">superiority with a <i>rebellion</i> against existing authority.</span><br />
<span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif">As such it provided an environment in which homosexual men could express, in a socially acceptable way, their dissent from heterosexual orthodoxy, and from the <i>Protestant values </i> of those who wielded repressive power in church and state.</span><span face="Arial, Helvetica, sans-serif"><br /></span>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="font-size: 13px;"><b style="font-family: "Trebuchet MS", sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-43482601723799977842013-11-21T13:14:00.000-08:002014-01-10T16:47:06.892-08:00The Spirit of England - 'Dr Who' - A Curiously English Phenomena<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">'DR WHO'</span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">A CURIOUSLY ENGLISH PHENOMENA</span></div>
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'Doctor Who' first appeared on BBC television at 17:16:20 GMT on 23 November 1963, when the author of this blog was a teenager - and he clearly remembers viewing the very first episode - and many, many others.<br />
The Head of Drama, Canadian Sydney Newman, was mainly responsible for developing the programme, with the first format document for the series being written by Newman along with the Head of the Script Department (later Head of Serials) Donald Wilson and staff writer C. E. Webber.<br />
Writer Anthony Coburn, David Whitaker, a story editor, and initial producer Verity Lambert also heavily contributed to the development of the series.<br />
The programme was intended to appeal to a family audience, as an 'educational' programm, using time travel as a means to explore scientific ideas and famous moments in history.<br />
On 31 July 1963 Whitaker commissioned Terry Nation to write a story under the title 'The Mutants'.<br />
As originally written, the Daleks and Thals were the victims of an alien neutron bomb attack but Nation later dropped the aliens and made the Daleks the aggressors.<br />
When the script was presented to Newman and Wilson it was immediately rejected as the programme was not permitted to contain any "<i>bug-eyed monsters</i>".<br />
The first serial had been completed, and the BBC believed it was crucial that the next one be a success, however, 'The Mutants' was the only script ready to go so the show had little choice but to use it.<br />
According to producer Verity Lambert; "<i>We didn't have a lot of choice - we only had the Dalek serial to go ... We had a bit of a crisis of confidence because Donald [Wilson] was so adamant that we shouldn't make it. Had we had anything else ready we would have made that</i>."<br />
Nation's script became the second Doctor Who serial – "The Daleks" (aka "The Mutants").<br />
The serial introduced the eponymous aliens that would become the series' most popular monsters, and was responsible for the BBC's first merchandising boom.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The First Episode</span><br />
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It has been suggested that the transmission of the first episode was delayed by ten minutes due to extended news coverage of the assassination of US President John F. Kennedy the previous day; whereas in fact, it went out just eighty seconds late.<br />
Because it was believed that the coverage of the events of the assassination, as well as a series of power blackouts across the country, may have caused too many viewers to miss this introduction to a new series, the BBC broadcast it again on 30 November 1963, just before the broadcast of episode two.<br />
The programme soon became a national institution in the United Kingdom, with a large following among the general viewing audience.<br />
Many renowned actors asked for, or were offered and accepted, guest-starring roles in various stories.<br />
With popularity came controversy over the show's suitability for children.<br />
Morality campaigner Mary Whitehouse repeatedly complained to the BBC in the 1970s over what she saw as the show's frightening or gory content - but then she complained about almost everything on television. Regardless, however, the programme became even more popular - especially with children.<br />
John Nathan-Turner, who produced the series during the 1980s, was heard to say that he looked forward to Whitehouse's comments, as the show's ratings would increase soon after she had made them.<br />
During Jon Pertwee's second series as the Doctor, in the serial Terror of the Autons (1971), images of murderous plastic dolls, daffodils killing unsuspecting victims, and blank-featured policemen marked the apex of the show's ability to frighten children.<br />
Other notable moments in that decade included a disembodied brain falling to the floor in 'The Brain of Morbiu' and the Doctor apparently being drowned by Chancellor Goth inThe Deadly Assassi (both 1976).<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The TARDIS</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Original TARDIS - interior</td></tr>
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The image of the TARDIS has become firmly linked to the show in the public's consciousness.<br />
BBC scriptwriter Anthony Coburn, who lived in the resort of Herne Bay, Kent, was one of the people who conceived the idea of a police box as a time machine.<br />
In 1996, the BBC applied for a trade mark to use the TARDIS's blue police box design in merchandising associated with Doctor Who.<br />
In 1998, the Metropolitan Police Authority filed an objection to the trade mark claim; but in 2002, the Patent Office ruled in favour of the BBC.<br />
The TARDIS is a product of the advanced technology of the Time Lords, an extraterrestrial civilisation to which the programme's central character, the Doctor, belongs.<br />
A properly maintained and piloted TARDIS can transport its occupants to any point in time, and any place in the universe.<br />
The interior of a TARDIS is much larger than its exterior ("<i>It's bigger on the inside</i>"), which can blend in with its surroundings using the ship's "<i>chameleon circuit</i>".<br />
TARDISes also possess a degree of sentience (which has been expressed in a variety of ways ranging from implied machine personality and free will through to the use of a conversant avatar) and provide their users with additional tools and abilities including a telepathically based universal translation system.<br />
In the series, the Doctor pilots an apparently unreliable, obsolete TT Type 40, Mark 1 TARDIS.<br />
Its chameleon circuit is broken, leaving it stuck in the shape of a 1960s-style London police box after a visit to London in 1963.<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #a2c4c9; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">When Doctor Who was being developed in 1963, the production staff discussed what the Doctor's time machine would look like. To keep the design within budget, it was decided to make it resemble a police box. This was explained in the context of the series as a disguise created by the ship's "chameleon circuit", a mechanism which is responsible for changing the outside appearance of the ship in order to fit in with its environment. The Ninth Doctor explains that if, for example, a TARDIS (with a working chameleon circuit) were to materialise in ancient Rome it might disguise itself as a statue on a plinth. The First Doctor explained that if it were to land in the middle of the Indian Mutiny, it might take on the appearance of a howdah (the carrier on the back of an elephant). A further premise was that the circuit was broken, explaining why it was "stuck" in that form.</span><br />
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The Doctor's TARDIS was for most of the series' history said to have been stolen from the Time Lords' home planet, Gallifrey, where it was old, decommissioned and derelict (and, in fact, in a museum), however, during the events of 'The Doctor's Wife' (2011), the ship's consciousness briefly inhabits a human body named Idris, and she reveals that far from being stolen, she left of her own free will.<br />
During this episode, she flirtatiously implies that she "<i>stole</i>" the Doctor rather than the other way around, although she does also refer to him as her "<i>thief</i>" in the same episode.<br />
The unpredictability of the TARDIS's short-range guidance (relative to the size of the Universe) has often been a convenient plot point in the Doctor's travels.<br />
Also in 'The Doctor's Wife', the TARDIS reveals that much of this "<i>unpredictability</i>" was actually intentional on its part in order to get the Doctor "<i>where he needed to go</i>" as opposed to where he "<i>wanted to go</i>".<br />
Although "TARDIS" is a type of craft rather than a specific one, the Doctor's TARDIS is usually referred to as "<i>the</i>" TARDIS or, in some of the earlier serials, just as "<i>the ship</i>".<br />
The eleventh incarnation of the Doctor is also known to have referred to her as "<i>Sexy</i>", a name she actually adopts as her preferred address in 'The Doctor's Wife', much to the Doctor's embarrassment.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Dr Who - the Early Days</span><br />
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The BBC drama department's 'Serials division' produced the programme for 26 seasons, broadcast on BBC 1.<br />
Falling viewing numbers, a decline in the public perception of the show and a less-prominent transmission slot saw production suspended in 1989 by Jonathan Powell, Controller of BBC 1.<br />
Although (as series co-star Sophie Aldred reported in the documentary 'Doctor Who: More Than 30 Years in the TARDIS') it was effectively, if not formally, cancelled with the decision not to commission a planned 27th series of the show for transmission in 1990, the BBC repeatedly affirmed that the series would return.<br />
While in-house production had ceased, the BBC hoped to find an independent production company to relaunch the show.<br />
Philip Segal, a British expatriate who worked for Columbia Pictures' television arm in the United States, had approached the BBC about such a venture as early as July 1989, while the 26th series was still in production.<br />
Segal's negotiations eventually led to a Doctor Who television film, broadcast on the Fox Network in 1996 as a co-production between Fox, Universal Pictures, the BBC and BBC Worldwide. Although the film was successful in the UK (with 9.1 million viewers), it was less so in the United States and did not lead to a series.<br />
Licensed media such as novels and audio plays provided new stories, but as a television programme Doctor Who remained dormant until 2003.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Dr Who in the 21st Century</span><br />
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The 21st century revival of the programme has become the centrepiece of BBC One's Saturday schedule, and has "<i>defined the channel</i>."<br />
Since its return, 'Doctor Who' has consistently received high ratings, both in number of viewers and as measured by the Appreciation Index.<br />
In September of that year, BBC Television announced the in-house production of a new series.<br />
The executive producers of the new incarnation of the series were writer Russell T Davies and BBC Cymru Wales Head of Drama Julie Gardner.<br />
Doctor Who finally returned with the episode "Rose" on BBC One on 26 March 2005.<br />
There have since been six further series in 2006–2008 and 2010–2012, and Christmas Day specials every year since 2005.<br />
No full series was filmed in 2009, although four additional specials starring Tennant were made.<br />
In 2010, Steven Moffat replaced Davies as head writer and executive producer.<br />
The 2005 version of 'Doctor Who' is a direct continuation of the 1963–1989 series, as is the 1996 telefilm. This differs from other series relaunches that have either been reimaginings or reboots (for example, Battlestar Galactica and Bionic Woman) or series taking place in the same universe as the original but in a different period and with different characters (for example, Star Trek: The Next Generation and spin-offs).<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Doctor</span><br />
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The character of the Doctor was initially shrouded in mystery.<br />
All that was known about him in the programme's early days was that he was an eccentric alien traveller of great intelligence, who battled injustice while exploring time and space in an unreliable time machine, the "TARDIS" (an acronym for Time And Relative Dimension(s) In Space), which notably appears much larger on the inside than on the outside (a quality referred to as "dimensionally transcendental").<br />
The initially irascible and slightly sinister Doctor quickly mellowed into a more compassionate figure.<br />
It was eventually revealed that he had been on the run from his own people, the Time Lords of the planet Gallifrey.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">William Hartnell - Dr Who</td></tr>
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As a Time Lord, the Doctor has the ability to regenerate his body when near death.<br />
Introduced into the storyline as a way of continuing the series when the writers were faced with the departure of lead actor William Hartnell in 1966, it has continued to be a major element of the series, allowing for the recasting of the lead actor when the need arises<br />
The serials 'The Deadly Assassin' and 'Mawdryn Undead', and the 1996 TV film have established that a Time Lord can regenerate 12 times, for a total of 13 incarnations.<br />
The BBC Series 4 FAQ suggests that now the Time Lord social order has been destroyed, the Doctor may be able to regenerate indefinitely: (Useful for the BBC).<br />
"<i>Now that his people are gone, who knows? Time Lords used to have 13 lives</i>."<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">'The Sarah Jane Adventures'</td></tr>
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'Death of the Doctor', a 2010 story of the spin-off series 'The Sarah Jane Adventures', has the Doctor claiming that he can regenerate 507 times, but episode writer Russell T Davies later indicated that this was intended as a joke (?), not to be taken seriously.<br />
The Doctor has fully gone through this process and its resulting after-effects on ten occasions, with each of his incarnations having their own quirks and abilities but otherwise sharing the consciousness, memories, experience and basic personality of the previous incarnations.<br />
To date, eleven actors have played the lead role in the television series, with continuity maintained by the ability of the character's species to<i> 'regenerate' - </i>a very handy ability in the circumstances.<br />
The character's enduring popularity led to the Doctor being described as "<i>Britain's favourite alien</i>".<br />
The Doctor in his eleventh incarnation is played by Matt Smith, who took on the role in January 2010 and became the first Doctor to be nominated for a BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Leading Role in 2011.<br />
On 1 June 2013, it was announced that Matt Smith would leave the series during the 2013 Christmas special.<br />
On 4 August 2013, it was announced that Peter Capaldi would play the Doctor's twelfth incarnation.<br />
The character of the Doctor was created by the BBC's Head of Drama Sydney Newman.<br />
The first format document for the series that was to become 'Doctor Who' – then provisionally titled 'The Troubleshooters' – was written up in March 1963 by C. E. Webber, a BBC staff writer who had been brought in to help develop the project.<br />
Webber's document contained a main character described as '<i>The maturer man, 35–40, with some 'character twist',</i> however, Newman was not keen on this idea and – along with several other changes to Webber's initial format – created an alternative lead character named Dr Who, a crotchety older man piloting a stolen time machine, on the run from his own far future world.<br />
No written record of Newman's conveyance of these ideas – believed to have taken place in April 1963 – exists, and the character of Dr Who first begins appearing in existing documentation from May of that year.<br />
The character was first portrayed by William Hartnell in 1963.<br />
At the programme's beginning, nothing at all is known of the Doctor: not even his name, the actual form of which remains a mystery.<br />
In the first serial, 'An Unearthly Child', two teachers from Coal Hill School in London, Barbara Wright and Ian Chesterton, become intrigued by one of their pupils, Susan Foreman, who exhibits high intelligence and unusually advanced knowledge.<br />
Trailing her to a junk yard at 76 Totter's Lane, they encounter a strange old man, and hear Susan's voice coming from inside what appears to be a police box.<br />
Pushing their way inside, the two find that the exterior is actually camouflage for the dimensionally transcendental interior of the TARDIS.<br />
The old man, whom Susan calls "<i>Grandfather</i>", subsequently kidnaps Barbara and Ian to prevent them from telling anyone about the existence of the ship, taking them on an adventure in time and space.<br />
The first Doctor explicitly positioned the Doctor as grandfather to his companion Susan, and he wore a long white wig, and Edwardian costume, reflecting a "<i>definite sense of Englishness</i>".<br />
When, after three years, Hartnell left the series due to ill health, the role was handed over to character actor Patrick Troughton.<br />
To date, official television productions have depicted eleven distinct incarnations of the Doctor (following Hartnell's death in 1975, actor Richard Hurndall substituted in his role as the First Doctor in 1983's The Five Doctors).<br />
Of those, the longest-lasting on-screen incarnation is the Fourth Doctor, as played by Tom Baker.]<br />
Currently, the Eleventh Doctor is portrayed by Matt Smith, who is to be replaced by the Twelfth Doctor, portrayed by Peter Capaldi in the Christmas Special.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Transitions</span><br />
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Except for the off-screen transition between the Eighth and Ninth Doctors, to date each regeneration has been worked into the continuing story, and also, most regenerations (minus the Second-to-Third and Eighth-to-Ninth transitions) have been portrayed on-screen, in a handing over of the role.<br />
The following list details the manner of each regeneration:<br />
First Doctor (William Hartnell): Frail and steadily growing weaker throughout 'The Tenth Planet', the doctor collapses at the serial's end.<br />
Second Doctor (Patrick Troughton): a forced "<i>change in appearance</i>", and exile to Earth by the Time Lords in the closing moments of 'The War Games'.<br />
Third Doctor (Jon Pertwee): radiation poisoning from the Great One's cave of crystals on the planet Metabilis 3 at the end of 'Planet of the Spiders'.<br />
Fourth Doctor (Tom Baker): fell from the Pharos Project radio telescope in Logopolis and was assisted in the regeneration by a mysterious "<i>in-between</i>" incarnation identified as "The Watcher".<br />
Fifth Doctor (Peter Davison): spectrox poisoning, contracted near the start of 'The Caves of Androzani'.<br />
Sixth Doctor (Colin Baker): suffered great injuries when the Rani attacked the TARDIS, and caused it to crash land at the start of 'Time and the Rani'.<br />
Seventh Doctor (Sylvester McCoy): died in San Francisco during exploratory heart surgery by a doctor unfamiliar with Time Lord physiology, after being hospitalised for non-life threatening gunshot wounds in the 1996 television movie.<br />
Eighth Doctor (Paul McGann): died aboard a crashing shuttle after failing to convince its pilot to accompany him to safety in the TARDIS in "The Night of the Doctor".<br />
The ship crashed on the planet Karn, where the Sisterhood of Karn revived the Doctor and offered him an elixir that allowed him to choose the characteristics of his next regeneration.<br />
Ninth Doctor (Christopher Eccleston): cellular degeneration caused by absorbing the energies of the time vortex from Rose Tyler, which she in turn had absorbed through the heart of the TARDIS in "The Parting of the Ways".<br />
Tenth Doctor (David Tennant): radiation poisoning incurred while saving the life of Wilfred Mott in 'The End of Time'.<br />
Only the Doctor's first regeneration (Hartnell to Troughton) occurs due to natural causes – the Doctor is showing increasing signs of age, and comments that his body is "<i>wearing a bit thin</i>," though this is apparently exacerbated by the energy drain from Mondas.<br />
All of the other regenerations have been caused by some external factor, such as radiation poisoning, infection or fatal injuries.<br />
In the original series, with the exception of the change from Troughton to Pertwee, regeneration usually occurred when the previous Doctor was near "<i>death</i>".<br />
The changeover from McCoy to McGann was handled differently, with the Doctor actually dying and being dead for quite some time before regeneration occurred.<br />
The Eighth Doctor comments at one point in the television movie that the anaesthesia interfered with the regenerative process, and that he had been "<i>dead too long</i>", accounting for his initial amnesia.<br />
Kate Orman's novel 'The Room with No Doors', set just before the regeneration, also notes that this is one of the few regenerations in which the Doctor was not conscious and aware that he was dying.<br />
The Second Doctor (Troughton), was the only Doctor whose regeneration was due to nothing more than a need to change his appearance.<br />
He was not aged, in ill health, or mortally wounded at the end of 'The War Games'.<br />
Prior to his exile, the Time Lords deemed that his current appearance was too well known on Earth and therefore forced a "<i>change of appearance</i>" on him.<br />
This method of changing appearance was a source of early speculation that the Second and Third Doctor were actually the same incarnation, since the second was never seen to truly "<i>die</i>" onscreen.<br />
Continuity has since established that one of his allotted regenerations was indeed used up for this transition.<br />
The 2005 series began with the Ninth Doctor already regenerated and fully stabilised, with no explanation given.<br />
In his first appearance in "Rose", the Doctor looked in a mirror and commented on the size of his ears, suggesting to some viewers that the regeneration may have happened shortly prior to the episode, or that he has not examined himself in the mirror recently.<br />
Some draw the conclusion that the Ninth Doctor's appearances in old photographs, without being accompanied by Rose, may also suggest that he had been regenerated for some time, but these appearances could have also occurred afterwards.<br />
In the 2013 mini-episode 'The Night of the Doctor', a prequel to the 50th anniversary special, it was revealed that the Eighth Doctor had been revived by the Sisterhood of Karn after dying in a spacecraft crash.<br />
The Sisterhood offered him an elixir that enabled him to choose the characteristics of his next regeneration, and he opted for '<i>a warrior</i>'; the final scene of the mini episode shows him regenerating not into the Ninth Doctor, as had been widely assumed, but into the War Doctor, played in the final scene of 'The Name of the Doctor' by John Hurt.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Personality</span><br />
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Throughout his regenerations, the Doctor's personality has retained a number of consistent traits.<br />
Its most notable aspect is an unpredictable, affable, clownish exterior concealing a well of great age, wisdom, seriousness and even darkness.<br />
At times he has been described as "<i>fire and ice and rage, he's like the night and the storm in the heart of the sun, he's ancient and forever, he burns at the centre of time..</i>." and "<i>the man who can turn an army around at the mention of his name</i>".<br />
While the Doctor can appear childlike and jocular, when the stakes rise, as, for example, in 'Pyramids of Mars', he will often become cold, driven and callous.<br />
Another aspect of the Doctor's persona, which, though always present, has been emphasised or downplayed from incarnation to incarnation, is compassion.<br />
The Doctor is a fervent pacifist and is dedicated to the preservation of sentient life, human or otherwise, over violence and war, even going so far as to doubt the morality of destroying his worst enemies, the Daleks, when he has the chance to do so in Genesis of the Daleks, and again in Evolution of the Daleks.<br />
He also, in 'The Time Monster', begs Kronos to spare the Master torment or death, unintentionally winning the evil Time Lord's freedom, which he tells Jo Grant was preferable anyway, and forgives the Master for his actions in 'The Sound of Drums' and 'Last of the Time Lords', vowing to take responsibility for his former friend.<br />
Nonetheless, the Doctor will kill when given no other option and occasionally in self-defence; examples of this can be seen in 'The Tomb of the Cybermen', 'The Dominators', 'The Invasion', 'The Krotons', 'Spearhead from Space', 'The Sea Devils', 'The Three Doctors', 'The Brain of Morbius', 'The Talons of Weng-Chiang', 'The Invasion of Time', 'Earthshock', 'Arc of Infinity', 'Vengeance on Varos', 'The Two Doctors', 'Silver Nemesis', 'World War Three', 'The Christmas Invasion', 'Tooth and Claw', 'The Age of Steel', 'The Runaway Bride', 'Smith and Jones' and most notably in 'Remembrance of the Daleks', when he arranges for the planet Skaro to be destroyed; it has also been stated numerous times in the series, beginning in 2005, that he was responsible for destroying both the Dalek and Time Lord races in order to end the Time War.<br />
Another example of the Doctor purposely taking a life is 'The Sontaran Experiment', where he tells his companion Harry Sullivan to remove a device from the Sontaran ship, which causes the death of the Sontaran, something the Doctor knew would happen but Harry did not. In the 2005 episode 'The End of the World', the Doctor teleports Cassandra back onto the ship and does nothing to prevent her death, even ignoring her cries for help and pity.<br />
Similarly, in "'Dinosaurs on a Spaceship', he strands Solomon on a spacecraft with a homing device to which several missiles have locked on, effectively consigning him to death.<br />
In situations where fixed points in history must be preserved, the Doctor is sometimes faced with hard choices resulting in the deaths of many.<br />
In 'The Visitation' he started the Great Fire of London, and in 'The Fires of Pompeii' (2008) he caused the volcano above Pompeii to erupt, which killed everyone in the city (but saved the rest of the world).<br />
On other occasions he is seen to be critical of others who use deadly force, such as his companions Leela in 'The Face of Evil' and 'Talons of Weng-Chiang', or Jack Harkness in 'Utopia' (2006).<br />
In the episode 'The Lodger' (2011), a member of the Doctor's football team offhandedly mentions annihilating the team they will play next week.<br />
The Doctor looks very angry and says "<i>No violence, not while I'm around, not today, not ever. I'm the Doctor, the oncoming storm... and you basically meant beat them in a football match, didn't you </i>?"<br />
In the revived series, the Doctor has displayed a ruthless streak at times.<br />
When his companion or innocent people are harmed, his indignation drives him to seek the antagonist with a vengeance.<br />
The Ninth Doctor intentionally electrocuted the Dalek he encountered in 'Dalek' despite its pleas for him to have pity, coldly stating "<i>you never did</i>".<br />
The Tenth Doctor notably had a "<i>one chance only</i>" policy when dealing with aliens invading the Earth, leading to his companion Donna Noble commenting that he needs "<i>someone</i>" to keep his temperament in check.<br />
In '<i>The Family of Blood',</i> the alien the Doctor defeats noted retrospectively that "<i>he never raised his voice – that was the worst thing, the fury of a Time Lord</i>".<br />
The Eleventh Doctor was the only Doctor to undergo three significant personality changes, becoming even more ruthless when alone in his travels, when Amy Pond and Rory Williams were absent, then fell into a depression beyond his other incarnations when the couple were lost to him, becoming the first Doctor to retire voluntarily, before finally being overjoyed at the prospect that Clara Oswin Oswald was still alive.<br />
The Doctor has an extreme dislike for weapons such as firearms or rayguns, and will often decline to use them even when they are convenient.<br />
The Tenth Doctor was especially put off by guns, going out of his way to make his feelings known.<br />
In 'Doomsday' (2006) the Daleks declare the Doctor is unarmed, to which he replies "<i>That's me. Always</i>."<br />
In 'The Doctor's Daughter' (2008) he is enraged at the death of Jenny, and points a gun at the head of the man who shot her before throwing it away and yelling "<i>I never would !</i>".<br />
He has proven capable of using weapons effectively when necessary, as seen in 'Resurrection of the Daleks' and 'Revelation of the Daleks'.<br />
In 'The End of Time', he hit a small diamond with a single shot to destroy a machine and prevent the destruction of time itself.<br />
He will occasionally use a firearm as a convenient way to bluff his way through a situation, hoping that his foe will not suspect that he does not intend to shoot.<br />
He will also occasionally present non-threatening items as weapons so as to fool his enemies and buy himself time.<br />
In two concurrent episodes in 2012 however, the Eleventh Doctor resorts to real violence.<br />
He directs missiles to kill a man in 'Dinosaurs on a Spaceship', and in 'A Town Called Mercy', he throws Kahler-Jex out of the town where he knows the Gunslinger will find and kill him, and aims a pistol at him to keep him out.<br />
The Doctor has a deep sense of right and wrong, and a conviction that it is right to intervene when injustice occurs, which sets him apart from his own people, the Time Lords, and their strict ethic of non-intervention.<br />
While the Doctor remains essentially the same person throughout his regenerations, each actor has purposely imbued his incarnation of the character with distinct quirks and characteristics, and the production teams dictate new personality traits for each actor to portray.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Fashion</span><br />
<br />
The Doctor's clothing has been equally distinctive, from the distinguished Edwardian suits of the First Doctor, to the Second Doctor's rumpled, clownlike Chaplinesque attire, to the dandy-esque frills and velvet of the Third Doctor's era.<br />
The Fourth Doctor's long frock coat, loose fitting trousers, occasionally worn wide-brimmed hat and trailing, multi-striped scarf added to his somewhat shambolic and bohemian image; the Fifth's Edwardian cricketeer's outfit suited his youthful, aristocratic air, as well as his love of the sport (with a stick of celery on the lapel for an eccentric touch though in 'The Caves of Androzani' - it is revealed to turn purple when exposed to gases the Doctor is allergic to); and the Sixth's multicoloured jacket, with its cat-shaped lapel pins, reflected the excesses of 1980s fashion.<br />
The Seventh Doctor's outfit – a straw hat, a coat with two scarves, a tie, checked trousers and brogues/wingtips – was more subdued, and suggestive of a showman, reflecting his whimsical approach to life.<br />
In later seasons, as his personality grew more mysterious, his jacket, tie, and hat-band all grew darker.<br />
Throughout the 1980s, question marks formed a constant motif, usually on the shirt collars or, in the case of the Seventh Doctor, on his sleeveless jumper and the handle to his umbrella.<br />
The idea was grounded in branding considerations, as was the movement starting in Tom Baker's final season toward an unchanging costume for each Doctor, rather than the variants on a theme employed over the first seventeen years of the programme.<br />
When the Eighth Doctor regenerated, he clad himself in a 19th-century frock coat and shirt based around a Wild Bill Hickok costume, reminiscent of the out-of-time quality of earlier Doctors and emphasising the Eighth Doctor's more Romantic persona.<br />
In contrast to the more flamboyant outfits of his predecessors, the Ninth Doctor wore a nondescript, worn black leather jacket, V-neck jumper and dark trousers.<br />
Eccleston stated that he felt that such definitive "<i>costumes</i>" were passé and that the character's trademark eccentricities should show through their actions and clever dialogue, not through gimmicky costumes.<br />
Despite this, there is a running joke about his character that the only piece of clothing he changes is his jumper, even when trying to "<i>blend into</i>" a historical era.<br />
The one exception, a photograph of him taken in 1912, wearing period gentleman's clothing, resembles the style of the Eighth Doctor.<br />
The Tenth Doctor sports either a brown or a blue pinstripe suit – usually worn with ties – a tan ankle-length coat and Converse trainers, the latter recalling the plimsolls worn by his fifth incarnation.<br />
Also, like that incarnation (and his first one), he occasionally wears spectacles: a pair with black, thick-rimmed frames.<br />
In the 2007 'Children in Need Special' he states that he doesn't actually need glasses to see, but rather wears them to "<i>look a bit clever</i>."<br />
On some occasions he wears a black tuxedo with matching black trainers.<br />
In interviews, Tennant has referred to his Doctor's attire as '<i>geek chic'</i>.<br />
According to Tennant he had always wanted to wear the trainers.<br />
The Tenth Doctor says in 'The Runaway Bride' that, like the TARDIS, his pockets are bigger on the inside. The Second, Fourth, Sixth, Seventh and Eleventh Doctors routinely carried numerous items in their coats without this being conspicuous.<br />
The Eleventh Doctor's appearance has been described as appearing like "<i>an Oxford professor</i>", with a tweed jacket, red or blue striped shirt, red or blue bow tie, black or grey trousers with red or blue braces, and black boots.<br />
He maintains "<i>Bow ties are cool</i>" even when his companions do not agree, and is delighted to meet Dr Black, the first man who agrees with him, in the episode 'Vincent and the Doctor'.<br />
As a running gag, he exhibits attraction to unusual hats, like a fez, a pirate hat, and a Stetson, often only to have them destroyed by River Song shortly afterwards.<br />
Starting in the second half of Series 7, the Eleventh Doctor has reverted to wearing a frock coat, like the ones his early predecessors wore, along with a waistcoat and black trousers, black braces, an off-white shirt, with brown boots.<br />
The bow tie is still present.<br />
He has also added round-rimmed glasses that belonged to former companion Amy Pond.<br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com1tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-73611245861242739522013-11-18T15:33:00.003-08:002014-01-10T16:50:35.889-08:00The Spirit of England - The English Left<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-family: Trebuchet MS, sans-serif; font-size: xx-small;"><b>© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></span></td></tr>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">THE ENGLISH LEFT</span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
The 'Cambridge Five' were a ring of spies, recruited in part by Russian scout Arnold Deutsch in the United Kingdom, who passed information to the Soviet Union during World War II, and at least into the early 1950s.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Four members of the ring have been identified: Kim Philby (cryptonym: Stanley), Donald Duart Maclean (cryptonym: Homer), Guy Burgess, (cryptonym: Hicks) and Anthony Blunt (cryptonym: Johnson); jointly they are known as the Cambridge Four.</div>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Kings' College Cambridge</td></tr>
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The term "Cambridge" in the name Cambridge Five refers to the recruitment of the group during their education at Cambridge University in the 1930s.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
The four known members all attended the university, as did the alleged fifth man.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Debate surrounds the exact timing of their recruitment by Soviet intelligence; Anthony Blunt claimed that they were not recruited as agents until they had graduated.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Blunt, a Fellow of Trinity College, was several years older than Burgess, Maclean, and Philby; he acted as a talent-spotter and recruiter for most of the group save Burgess.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Several people have been suspected of being the "fifth man" of the group; John Cairncross (cryptonym: Liszt) was identified as such by Oleg Gordievsky, though many others have also been accused of membership in the Cambridge ring.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Both Blunt and Burgess were members of the 'Apostles', an exclusive and prestigious society based at Trinity and King's Colleges.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Cairncross was also an 'Apostle'.</div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
Other 'Apostles' accused of having been the "fifth man" or otherwise spied for the Soviets include Michael Whitney Straight, Victor Rothschild and Guy Liddell.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Known Members</span><br />
<br />
All four were active during World War II, to various degrees of success.<br />
Philby, when he was posted in the British embassy in Washington, D.C., after the war, learned the U.S. and the British were searching for a British Embassy mole (cryptonym Homer) who was passing information to the Soviet Union, relying on material uncovered by VENONA.<br />
Philby learned one of the suspects was Maclean.<br />
Realizing he had to act fast, he ordered Burgess, who was also on the embassy staff and living with Philby, to warn Maclean in England, where he was serving in the Foreign Office headquarters.<br />
Burgess was recalled from the United States due to "bad behaviour" and upon reaching London, warned Maclean.<br />
In early summer 1951, Burgess and Maclean made international headlines by disappearing.<br />
Their whereabouts were unclear for some time.<br />
Strong suspicion that they had defected to the Soviet Union turned out to be correct, but was not made public until 1956 when the two appeared at a press conference in Moscow.<br />
It was obvious they had been tipped off and Philby quickly became the prime suspect, due to his close relations with Burgess.<br />
Though Burgess was not supposed to defect at the same time as Maclean, he went along.<br />
It has been claimed that the KGB ordered Burgess to go to Moscow.<br />
This move damaged Philby's reputation, with many speculating that had it not occurred, Philby could have climbed even higher in MI6.<br />
Investigation of Philby found several suspicious matters but nothing for which he could be prosecuted.<br />
Nevertheless he was forced to resign from MI6.<br />
In 1955 he was named in the press, with questions also raised in the House of Commons, as chief suspect for "the Third Man" and he called a press conference to deny the allegation.<br />
Philby was officially cleared by then Foreign Secretary Harold MacMillan; this later turned out to be an error based on incomplete information and bureaucratic inefficiency in the British intelligence organisations.<br />
In the later 1950s, Philby left the secret service and began working as a journalist in the Middle East; 'The Economist' magazine provided his employment there.<br />
MI6 then re-employed him at around the same time, to provide reports from that region.<br />
In 1961, defector Anatoliy Golitsyn provided information which pointed to Philby.<br />
An MI5 officer and friend of Philby from his earlier MI6 days, John Nicholas Rede Elliott was sent in 1963 to interview him in Beirut and reported that Philby seemed to know he was coming (indicating the presence of yet another mole), nonetheless, Philby confessed to Elliott.<br />
Shortly afterward, apparently fearing he might be abducted in Lebanon, Philby defected to the Soviet Union under cover of night aboard a Soviet freighter.<br />
MI5 received information from American Michael Straight in 1964 which pointed to Blunt's espionage; the two had known each other at Cambridge some thirty years before and Blunt had tried to recruit Straight as a spy.<br />
Straight, who initially agreed, changed his mind afterwards.<br />
Blunt was interrogated by MI5 and confessed in exchange for immunity from prosecution.<br />
By 1979 Blunt was publicly accused of being a Soviet agent by investigative journalist Andrew Boyle, in his book Climate of Treason.<br />
In November 1979, Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher admitted to the House of Commons that Blunt had confessed to being a Soviet spy fifteen years previously.<br />
As he was by 1964 without access to classified information, he had secretly been granted immunity by the Attorney General in exchange for revealing everything he knew.<br />
He provided a considerable amount of information, and preventing the Soviets from discovering his confession increased the value of his information, however, Peter Wright in his book 'Spycatcher' gives a contradictory account.<br />
Wright was one of Blunt's interrogators, and claimed he was evasive and only made admissions grudgingly when confronted with the undeniable.<br />
The term "Five" began to be used in 1961, when KGB defector Anatoliy Golitsyn named Maclean and Burgess as part of a "Ring of Five", with Philby a 'probable' third, alongside two other agents whom he did not know.<br />
Of all the information provided by Golitsyn, the only item that was ever independently confirmed was the Soviet affiliation of John Vassall.<br />
Vassall was a relatively low ranking spy who may have been sacrificed to protect a more senior one.<br />
At the time of Golitsyn's defection, Philby had already been accused in the press and was living in a country with no extradition agreement with Britain.<br />
Select members of MI5 and MI6 already knew Philby to be a spy from VENONA decryptions.<br />
Golitsyn also provided other information that is widely regarded as highly improbable, such as the claim that Harold Wilson (then Prime Minister of the United Kingdom) was a KGB agent.<br />
Golitsyn's reliability remains a controversial subject and as such there is little certainty of the number of agents he assigned to the Cambridge spy ring.<br />
To add to the confusion, when Blunt finally confessed, he named several other people as having been recruited by him.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Fifth Man</span><br />
<br />
On the basis of the information provided by Golitsyn, speculation raged for many years as to the identity of the "Fifth Man".<br />
The journalistic popularity of this phrase owes something to the unrelated novels 'The Third Man' and 'The Tenth Man', both written by Graham Greene - who, coincidentally, knew and worked alongside Philby during the Second World War.<br />
It is now widely accepted that the spy ring had more than five members, possibly <i>many</i> more, since three other persons are known to have confessed, several more were nominated in confessions, and circumstantial cases have been made against others.<br />
The following were certainly Soviet spies.<br />
John Cairncross (1913–1995), confessed to spying in 1951 and was publicly accused of being the "fifth man" in 1990.<br />
He was also accused by Anthony Blunt during Blunt's confession in 1964.<br />
Cairncross is not always considered to have belonged to the 'Ring of five'.<br />
He was a fellow student at Cambridge and a member of the Apostles with Blunt, therefore present at the recruitment of the others.<br />
Leo Long (later an intelligence officer), similarly accused by Blunt in 1964.<br />
Also accused:<br />
Ludwig Wittgenstein is alleged by Kimberley Cornish, in his 1998 book 'The Jew of Linz', to have been a Soviet recruiter at Cambridge; but Cornish's theories about Wittgenstein, and his influence on Hitler have found little acceptance.<br />
Guy Liddell was an MI5 officer, and nearly rose to become Director of the service, but was passed over because of rumours that he was a double agent; he took early retirement from MI5 in 1953 after being investigated for his personal links to Kim Philby.<br />
He was accused of having been the "fifth man" by Goronwy Rees as part of Rees' confession in 1979.<br />
The academic consensus is that he was naïve in his friendships rather than a spy.<br />
Andrew Gow: in his memoirs published in 2012, Brian Sewell, suggested that Gow was the 'fifth man' and spy master of the group.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Secret Intelligence Service</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Secret Intelligence Service (SIS)<br />
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The Secret Intelligence Service (SIS), commonly known as MI6 (Military Intelligence, Section 6), is the British agency which supplies the British Government with foreign intelligence.<br />
It is frequently referred to by the name MI6 (Military Intelligence, Section 6), a name used as a flag of convenience during the First World War when it was known by many names.<br />
The service is derived from the Secret Service Bureau, which was founded in 1909.<br />
The Bureau was a joint initiative of the Admiralty and the War Office to control secret intelligence operations in the UK and overseas, particularly concentrating on the activities of the Imperial German Government.<br />
The bureau was split into naval and army sections which, over time, specialised in foreign espionage and internal counter-espionage activities respectively.<br />
Its first director was Captain Sir George Mansfield Smith-Cumming, who often dropped the Smith in routine communication.<br />
He typically signed correspondence with his initial 'C' in green ink.<br />
This usage evolved as a code name, and has been adhered to by all subsequent directors of SIS when signing documents to retain anonymity.<br />
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Second World War<br />
<br />
During the Second World War the human intelligence work of the service was overshadowed by several other initiatives:<br />
The cryptanalytic effort undertaken by the Government Code and Cypher School (GC&CS), the bureau responsible for interception and decryption of foreign communications at Bletchley Park.<br />
The extensive "double-cross" system run by MI5 to feed misleading intelligence to the Germans<br />
GC&CS was the source of Ultra intelligence, which was very useful.<br />
In 1940, journalist and Soviet agent Kim Philby applied for a vacancy in Section D of SIS, and was vetted by his friend and fellow Soviet agent Guy Burgess.<br />
When Section D was absorbed by Special Operations Executive (SOE) in summer of 1940, Philby was appointed as an instructor in the arts of "black propaganda" at the SOE's training establishment in Beaulieu, Hampshire.<br />
In early 1944 MI6 re-established Section IX, its prewar anti-Soviet section, and Kim Philby took a position there.<br />
He was able to alert the NKVD about all British intelligence on the Soviets—including what the American OSS had shared with the British about the Soviets.<br />
Despite these difficulties the service nevertheless conducted substantial and successful operations in both occupied Europe and in the Middle East and Far East where it operated under the cover name Interservice Liaison Department (ISLD).<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Cold War</span><br />
<br />
In August 1945 Russian intelligence officer Konstantin Volkov tried to defect to Britain, offering the names of all Soviet agents working inside British intelligence.<br />
Philby received the memo on Volkov's offer, and alerted the Soviets so they could arrest him.<br />
SIS operations against the USSR were extensively compromised by the fact that the post-war Counter-Espionage Section, R5, was headed for two years by an agent working for the Soviet Union, Harold Adrian Russell "Kim" Philby.<br />
Although Philby's damage was mitigated for several years by his transfer as Head of Station in Turkey, he later returned and was the SIS intelligence liaison officer at the Embassy in Washington D.C.<br />
In this capacity he compromised a programme of joint US-UK paramilitary operations (Albanian Subversion, Valuable Project) in Enver Hoxha's Albania (although it has been shown that these operations were further compromised "on the ground" by poor security discipline among the Albanian émigrés recruited to undertake the operations).<br />
Philby was eased out of office and quietly retired in 1953 after the defection of his friends and fellow members of the "Cambridge spy ring" Donald Duart Maclean and Guy Burgess.<br />
SIS suffered further embarrassment when it turned out that an officer involved in both the Vienna and Berlin tunnel operations had been turned as a Soviet agent during internment by the Chinese during the Korean War.<br />
The real scale and impact of SIS activities during the second half of the Cold War remains unknown, however, because the bulk of their most successful targeting operations against Soviet officials were the result of "Third Country" operations recruiting Soviet sources travelling abroad in Asia and Africa.<br />
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-70437976802900152122013-11-15T11:51:00.001-08:002014-05-20T14:42:05.940-07:00The Spirit of England - English Fascism<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Georgia, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">ENGLISH FASCISM</span></div>
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<br /></div>
<div style="text-align: justify;">
<br />
English Fascism refers to the form of fascism promoted by political parties and movements in England (and Britain).<br />
English Fascism is based upon English nationalism<br />
The major Fascist movements in England included the British Fascists, the British Union of Fascists, the National Socialist League and the Imperial Fascist League.<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><br /></span>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The British Fascists</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The British Fascists<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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The British Fascists were the first political organisation in the United Kingdom to claim the label of fascist.<br />
While the group had more in common with conservatism for much of its existence it nonetheless was the first to self-describe as fascist in Britain.<br />
William Joyce, Neil Francis Hawkins, Maxwell Knight and Arnold Leese (see below) were amongst those to have passed through the movement as members and activists.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Rotha Lintorn-Orman</td></tr>
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The British Fascists were formed in 1923 by Rotha Lintorn-Orman in the aftermath of Benito Mussolini's March on Rome, and originally operated under the Italian-sounding name British Fascisti.<br />
Despite their name the group had a poorly defined ideological basis at their beginning, being brought into being more by a fear of left-wing politics than a devotion to fascism.<br />
The ideals of the Boy Scout movement, with which many early members had also been involved in their younger days, also played an important role as the British Fascisti wished, to "<i>uphold the same lofty ideas of brotherhood, service and duty</i>".<br />
At its formation at least the British Fascisti was positioned in the same right-wing conservative camp as the likes of the British Empire Union and the Middle Class Union and shared some members with these groups.<br />
The group had a complex structure, being presided over by both an Executive Council and Fascist Grand Council of nine men, with County and Area Commanders controlling districts below this.<br />
Districts contained a number of companies, which in turn were divided into troops with each troop made of three units and unit containing seven members under a Leader.<br />
A separate structure existed along similar lines for the group's sizeable female membership.<br />
Early membership largely came from high society, and included a number of women amongst its ranks, such as Dorothy Viscountess Downe, Lady Sydenham of Combe, Baroness Zouche and Nesta Webster.<br />
Men from the nobility also joined, such as Lord Glasgow, the Marquess of Ailesbury, Lord Ernest Hamilton, Baron de Clifford, Earl Temple of Stowe, Arthur Henry Hardinge and Lord Garvagh, who served as first President of the movement.<br />
High-ranking members of the armed forces also occupied leading roles in the group, with General Blakeney joined by the likes of General Ormonde Winter, Brigadier-General T. Erskine Tulloch, Admiral John Armstrong and Colonel Sir Charles Rosdew Burn, who combined a role on the Grand Council of the British Fascisti with that of Conservative Party MP for Torquay.<br />
Serving military personnel were eventually banned from joining the group by the Army Council however.<br />
At a more rank and file level the group attracted a membership of middle and working class young men.<br />
This domination by disgruntled members of the peerage and high-ranking officers meant that certain concerns not normally associated with the demands of fascism, such as anger at the decline of the large landowning agricultural sector, the high levels of estate taxation and death duties and the dearth of high-ranking civilian occupations suitable for the status of officers, were a central feature of the political concerns advanced by the British Fascisti.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Early Development</span><br />
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The party confined itself to stewarding Conservative Party meetings, and canvassing for the party.<br />
In particular they campaigned vigorously on behalf of Oliver Locker-Lampson, whose "Keep Out the Reds" campaign slogan struck a chord with the group's strong anti-communism.<br />
The group changed its name from British Fascisti to British Fascists in 1924 in an attempt to distance itself from the Italian associations, although this move helped to bring about a split in the group with a more ideologically fascist group, the National Fascisti, going its own way.<br />
The group's patriotism had been questioned because of the Italian spelling of the name, while accusations were also made that they were in the pay of the Italian government.<br />
Despite its close association with elements of the Conservative Party, the British Fascists did occasionally run candidates in local elections.<br />
In 1924 two of its candidates in the municipal elections in Stamford, Lincolnshire, Arnold Leese and Henry Simpson, managed to secure election to the local council.<br />
Simpson would retain his seat in 1927 although by that stage both he and Leese had broken from the British Fascists.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The 1926 strike</span><br />
<br />
The British Fascists began to take on a more prominent role in the run-up to the General Strike of 1926, as it became clear that their propaganda predicting such an outcome was due to come true.<br />
They were not however permitted to join the Organisation for the Maintenance of Supplies (OMS), a group established by the government and chaired by Lord Hardinge in order to mobilise a non-striking workforce in the event of general strike without first relinquishing any explicit attachment to fascism as the government insisted this group remain non-ideological.<br />
The structure of the OMS was actually based on that of the British Fascists, although the government was unwilling to rely on the British Fascists, due both to what they saw as the group's unorthodox nature and their reliance on funding from Rotha Lintorn-Orman, and so excluded them as a group from the OMS.<br />
As a result a further split occurred as a number of members, calling themselves the Loyalists and led by former BF President Brigadier-General Blakeney, did just that.<br />
In the event the British Fascists formed their own Q Divisions which took on much of the same work as the OMS during the strike, albeit without having any official government recognition.<br />
The strike severely damaged the party as it failed to precipitate the "Bolshevik Revolution" that Lintorn-Orman had set the party up to fight.<br />
In fact the strike was largely peaceful and restrained, and fears of future outbreaks were quelled somewhat by the passing of the Trades Disputes Act.<br />
Many of its most prominent members and supporters also drifted away from the group in the aftermath of the strike.<br />
The party journal, initially called 'Fascist Bulletin' before changing its name to 'British Lion', went from a weekly to a monthly while the loss of a number of key leaders and the erratic leadership of Lintorn-Orman, brought about a decline of activity.<br />
The group also became ravaged by factionalism, with one group following Lady Downe and the old ways of the British Fascists, and another centred around James Strachey Barnes and Sir Harold Elsdale Goad, advocating full commitment to a proper fascist ideology.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Decline</span><br />
<br />
Having been hit hard by the split from the General Strike the British Fascists attempted to move gradually towards a more defined fascism, starting in 1927 by adopting a blue shirt and beret uniform in the style of similar movements in Europe.<br />
The progress towards fascism did not however come quick enough for Arnold Leese who in 1928 split from the group to establish his own Imperial Fascist League (IFL) (see above), a much more hard-line group that emphasised anti-Semitism.<br />
Before long however the British Fascists began to advocate a more authoritarian government in which the monarch would take a leading role in government, as well as advocating the establishment of a corporate state, policy changes made possible by the departure of Blakeney, who was committed to representative democracy and whose main economic opinion was opposition to the gold standard.<br />
Even without Blakeney, they retained some of their earlier Conservative-linked views, such loyalty to the king, anti-trade union legislation, free trade within the British Empire and a general preference for the rural, although these were bolstered by fascist-influenced policies such as limiting the franchise, gradual purification of the "English race" and stringent restrictions on immigration and the activities of immigrants admitted to Britain, however the British Fascists actively encouraged comparisons with the Conservative Party, feeling that it would add a sense of legitimacy and Britishness to their activities, particularly as they faced harsh criticism from not only the left but also some Tories for their increasingly paramilitary structure.<br />
Nonetheless some Tories were close to the group, with Charles Burn sitting on the Grand Council and support being lent by the likes of Patrick Hannon, Robert Tatton Bower, Robert Burton-Chadwick and Alan Lennox-Boyd.<br />
Indeed in May 1925 Hannon even booked a chamber in the House of Commons to host an event for the British Fascists.<br />
After 1931, they abandoned their attempts to form a distinctly British version of Fascism, and instead adopted the full programme of Mussolini and his National Fascist Party.<br />
The already weakened group split further in 1932 over the issue of a merger with Oswald Mosley's New Party.<br />
The proposal was accepted by Neil Francis Hawkins of the Headquarters Committee and his allies Lieutenant-Colonel H.W. Johnson and E.G. Mandeville Roe although the female leadership turned the proposal down due to objections over serving under Mosley.<br />
Indeed the British Fascists had protested against public meetings being addressed by Mosley as early as 1927 when they denounced the then Labour MP as a dangerous socialist.<br />
As a consequence Francis Hawkins broke away and took much of the male membership of the group with him with the New Party becoming the British Union of Fascists (BUF) soon afterwards.<br />
Relations with the BUF were as a result frosty for the remainder of the group's life.<br />
By this stage in their development the British Fascists' membership had plummeted with only a hardcore of members left.<br />
Various schemes were floated in an attempt to reinvigorate the movement although none succeeded.<br />
In a bid to reverse their decline the party adopted a strongly anti-semitic platform.<br />
In 1933 Lord and Lady Downe, as representatives of the British Fascists, entertained Nazi German envoy Gunther Schmidt-Lorenzen at their country estate, and suggested to him that the National Socialists should avoid any links with Mosley, whom Lady Downe accused of being in the pay of Jewish figures such as Baron Rothschild and Sir Philip Sassoon.<br />
Fellow member Madame Arnaud repreated similar allegations about Mosley to another German official, Dr Margarete Gartner of the Economic Policy Association, however by this stage Rotha Lintorn-Orman's mother had cut her off financially, and so the group fell into debt until being declared bankrupt in 1934 when a Colonel Wilson called in a £500 loan.<br />
This effectively brought the British Fascists to a conclusion, with Rotha Lintorn-Orman dying the following year.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The Imperial Fascist League</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Arnold Leese</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">The Imperial Fascist League<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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The Imperial Fascist League (IFL) was a British Fascist political movement founded by Arnold Leese in 1929.<br />
Leese was born in Lytham St Annes, Lancashire, England and educated at Giggleswick School.<br />
An only child, his childhood was characterised by loneliness.<br />
After qualifying as a veterinary surgeon, he accepted a post in India, where he became an expert on the camel.<br />
He worked in India for six years before becoming Camel Specialist for the East Africa Protectorate of the British Empire.<br />
He published articles on the camel and its maladies, the first appearing in 'The Journal of Tropical Veterinary Science' in 1909.<br />
He was commissioned in the Royal Army Veterinary Corps in 1914, serving on the Western Front and in the Middle East.<br />
Captain Leese returned to England where he continued his practice, publishing 'A Treatise on the One-Humped Camel in Health and in Disease' (1927), which would remain a standard work in India for fifty years.<br />
He settled in Stamford, Lincolnshire, practising as a vet until retirement in 1927.<br />
In Stamford Leese became close to one of his neighbours, the economist Arthur Kitson, who was also a member of The Britons.<br />
Kitson persuaded Leese that control of money was the key to power, and further convinced him that money was controlled by the Jews, with Kitson also supplying Leese with a copy of the 'Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion'.<br />
As an animal lover Leese also claimed that the Jewish practice of 'kashrut' slaughter influenced his anti-Semitism.<br />
Around the same time Leese also became interested in Italian fascism and, after writing a pamphlet entitled 'Fascism for Old England', he joined the British Fascists in 1924.<br />
He also joined the Centre International d’Études sur la Fascisme, an Italian-led group aimed at the promotion of fascism internationally, and served as its British Correspondent.<br />
He was elected a councillor in Stamford that year, along with fellow fascist Henry Simpson.<br />
Leese left the British Fascists in 1928 and, having retired to Guildford, established his own Imperial Fascist League (IFL) the following year.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Imperial Fascist League Leadership</td></tr>
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The movement was initially more along the lines of Italian fascism but under the influence of Henry Hamilton Beamish it soon came to focus on anti-Semitism.<br />
The IFL and its extensive publishing interests were funded out of Leese's own pocket.<br />
The Fascists Legions, a black-shirted paramilitary arm, was soon added under the command of Leslie H. Sherrard.<br />
The group initially advocated such policies as corporatism, monetary reform and the removal of citizenship from Jews.<br />
The group was initially led by Brigadier-General Erskine Tulloch, although real power lay with Leese, who was ratified as Director-General in 1932.<br />
Henry Hamilton Beamish, head of The Britons, served as vice-president of the IFL and was a regular speaker at the movement's events.<br />
The IFL soon shifted away from Italian fascism (they originally used the fasces as their emblem) after Leese met Julius Streicher in Germany.<br />
Soon anti-Semitism became the central theme of IFL policy and their new programme, the 'Racial Fascist Corporate State', stressed the supremacy of the 'Aryan race'.<br />
The IFL altered its flag so that it featured the Union Flag superimposed with the swastika.<br />
As a result of this conversion the IFL enjoyed a higher profile, in large part due to the funding it received from the NSDAP, paid through the English correspondent of the 'Völkischer Beobachter', Dr. Hans Wilhelm Thost.<br />
Indeed by the mid 1930s the IFL had turned against the Italian model so much that they denounced Benito Mussolini as a "<i>pro-Semite</i>", claiming that the Second Italo-Ethiopian War had been organised by the Jews.<br />
In 1932 Robert Forgan approached the IFL and suggested that they should merge into Oswald Mosley's British Union of Fascists, but the offer was declined.<br />
Leese rejected any overtures from Mosely due to the latter's initial reluctance to make anti-Semitism a central theme.<br />
One of their biggest differences was that the IFL held a <i>biological </i>view of anti-Semitism - that the Jews were inherently inferior as a race - in contrast to the BUF, whose eventual adoption of anti-Semitism was framed in ideas about the Jews supposed undue influence at the top echelons of society.<br />
Although rejecting a merger with the BUF the IFL was linked to the 'Nordic League' through Commander E. H. Cole, a staunch advocate of the 'The Protocols of the Elders of Zion', who served as chancellor of the League as well as being a leading IFL member.<br />
Before long both Leese and P. J. Ridout also took out membership of this group, membership of which encompassed most shades of far right activity.<br />
The outbreak of the Second World War caused the small group to fall apart as Leese declared loyalty to King and country and renamed the group the Angles Circle, but this stance was rejected by some pro-German members such as Tony Gittens, Harold Lockwood and Bertie Mills.<br />
It proved to be academic however as in 1940 Leese was interned under Defence Regulation 18B and although he continued to be politically active after the war the IFL was not reformed.<br />
His formation of the National Workers Movement in 1948 meant the final end for the IFL.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The British Union of Fascists</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">British Union of Fascists<br />
<b style="font-family: 'Trebuchet MS', sans-serif; font-size: x-small;">© Copyright Peter Crawford 2013</b></td></tr>
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The British Union of Fascists was a political party in the United Kingdom formed in 1932 by Oswald Mosley. In 1936, it changed its name to the British Union of Fascists and National Socialists and in 1937 to British Union which existed until 1940 when it was proscribed.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Sir Oswald Mosley</td></tr>
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<div>
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Sir Oswald Mosley</span><br />
<br />
Sir Oswald Ernald Mosley, 6th Baronet (16 November 1896 – 3 December 1980) was an English politician.<br />
He was a Member of Parliament for Harrow from 1918 to 1924, for Smethwick from 1926 to 1931 and Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster in the Labour Government of 1929–31, a position he resigned due to his disagreement with the Labour Government's unemployment policies.<br />
Mosley was the eldest of the three sons of Sir Oswald Mosley (5th Baronet) (1873–1928) and Katharine Maud Edwards-Heathcote (1874–1950).<br />
His branch of the Mosley family was the Anglo-Irish family at its most prosperous, landowners in Staffordshire seated at Rolleston Hall near Burton-upon-Trent.<br />
In a senior aristocratic Georgian intermarriage, his father was a third cousin to the Earl of Strathmore, father of Elizabeth Bowes-Lyon who served alongside the King-Emperor George VI as Queen-Empress Consort.<br />
Mosley was born on 16 November 1896 at 47, Hill Street, Mayfair, Westminster.<br />
After his parents separated he was brought up by his mother, who went to live at Betton Hall near Market Drayton, and his paternal grandfather, Sir Oswald Mosley, 4th Baronet.<br />
Within the family and among intimate friends, he was always called "Tom".<br />
He lived for many years at Apedale Hall in the post town of Newcastle-under-Lyme also in Staffordshire.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lord Curzon of Kedleston<br />
Viceroy of India,</td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Lady Cynthia Curzon<br />
and Sir Oswald Mosley</td></tr>
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On 11 May 1920 he married Lady Cynthia Curzon (known as 'Cimmie'), (1898–1933), second daughter of George Curzon, Lord Curzon of Kedleston, (1859–1925), Viceroy of India, 1899–1905, Foreign Secretary, 1919–1924, and Lord Curzon's first wife, the U.S. mercantile heiress, the former Mary Victoria Leiter.<br />
Lord Curzon had to be persuaded that Mosley was a suitable husband, as he suspected Mosley was largely motivated by social advancement in Conservative Party politics and her inheritance.<br />
The 1920 wedding took place in the Chapel Royal in St James's Palace in London - arguably the social event of the year.<br />
The hundreds of guests included European royalty such as King George V and Queen Mary; and Leopold III and Astrid of Sweden, future King and Queen of Belgium.<br />
Mosley had three children by Cynthia:<br />
Vivien Mosley (1921–2002), who married on 15 January 1949 Desmond Francis Forbes Adam (1926–58), educated at Eton College and at King's College, University of Cambridge, by whom she had two daughters<br />
Nicholas Mosley (later 7th Baronet of Ancoats; born 1923), a successful novelist who wrote a biography of his father and edited his memoirs for publication; and<br />
Michael Mosley (born 1932), unmarried and without issue.<br />
During this marriage he had an extended affair with his wife's younger sister Lady Alexandra Metcalfe, and with their stepmother, Grace Curzon, Marchioness Curzon of Kedleston, the U.S.-born second wife and widow of Lord Curzon of Kedleston.<br />
He succeeded to the Baronetcy of Ancoats on his father's death in 1928, which entitles the current holder to the prefix style Sir.<br />
Cynthia died of peritonitis in 1933, after which Mosley married his mistress Diana Guinness, née Mitford (1910–2003). They married in secret in Germany on 6 October 1936 in the Berlin home of Minister of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda Joseph Goebbels. Adolf Hitler was one of the guests.<br />
By Diana, he had two sons:<br />
Oswald Alexander Mosley (born 1938), father of Louis Mosley (born 1983); and<br />
Max Mosley (born 1940), who was president of the Fédération Internationale de l'Automobile (FIA) for 16 years.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;"><span style="font-size: small; text-align: justify;">Winchester College</span></td></tr>
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">West Downs School</td></tr>
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<br />
Mosley was educated at West Downs School and Winchester College.<br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Royal Military College, Sandhurst</td></tr>
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In January 1914 he entered the Royal Military College, Sandhurst.<br />
During the First World War he was commissioned into the 16th The Queen's Lancers, and fought on the Western Front.<br />
He transferred to the Royal Flying Corps as an observer, but while demonstrating in front of his mother and sister he crashed, which left him with a permanent limp.<br />
He returned to the trenches before the injury was fully healed, and at the Battle of Loos he passed out at his post from pain.<br />
He spent the remainder of the war at desk jobs in the Ministry of Munitions and in the Foreign Office.<br />
By the end of the First World War, Mosley had decided to go into politics as a Conservative Member of Parliament, due to the War having had no university or practical experience.<br />
He was 21 years of age and had not fully developed his own politics.<br />
He was driven by, and in Parliament spoke of, a passionate conviction to avoid any future war, and this seemingly motivated his career.<br />
Largely because of his family background and war service, local Conservative and Labour Associations preferred Mosley in several constituencies - a vacancy near the family estates seemed to be the best prospect, however, he was unexpectedly selected for Harrow first.<br />
In the general election of 1918 he faced no serious opposition and was elected easily.<br />
He was the youngest member of the House of Commons to take his seat, though Joseph Sweeney, an abstentionist Sinn Féin member, was younger.<br />
He soon distinguished himself as an orator and political player, one marked by extreme self-confidence, and he made a point of speaking in the House of Commons without notes.<br />
<br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Crossing the Floor</span><br />
<br />
Mosley was at this time falling out with the Conservatives over Irish policy, objecting to the use of the Black and Tans to suppress the Irish population.<br />
Eventually he crossed the floor to sit as an Independent Member on the opposition side of the House of Commons.<br />
Having built up a following in his constituency, he retained it against a Conservative challenge in the 1922 and 1923 general elections.<br />
By 1924 he was growing increasingly attracted to the Labour Party, which had just formed a government, and in March he joined it.<br />
He immediately joined the Independent Labour Party (ILP) as well and allied himself with the left.<br />
When the government fell in October, Mosley had to choose a new seat, as he believed that Harrow would not re-elect him as a Labour candidate.<br />
He therefore decided to oppose Neville Chamberlain in Birmingham Ladywood.<br />
Mosley campaigned aggressively in Ladywood; and accused Chamberlain of being a "<i>landlords' hireling</i>".<br />
The outraged Chamberlain demanded that Mosley retract the claim "<i>as a gentleman</i>".<br />
Mosley, whom Stanley Baldwin described as "<i>a cad and a wrong 'un</i>", refused to retract the allegation.<br />
It took several recounts before Chamberlain was declared the winner by 77 votes and Mosley blamed poor weather for the result.<br />
His period outside Parliament was used to develop a new economic policy for the ILP, which eventually became known as the Birmingham Proposals; they continued to form the basis of Mosley's economics until the end of his political career.<br />
In 1926, the Labour-held seat of Smethwick fell vacant, and Mosley returned to Parliament after winning the resulting by-election on 21 December.<br />
Mosley felt the campaign was dominated by Conservative attacks on him for being too rich, including claims that he was covering up his wealth.<br />
Mosley and his wife Cynthia were committed Fabians in the 1920s, and at the start of the 1930s.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Office</span><br />
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Mosley then made a bold bid for political advancement within the Labour Party.<br />
He was close to Ramsay MacDonald and hoped for one of the great offices of state, but when Labour won the 1929 general election he was appointed only to the post of Chancellor of the Duchy of Lancaster (de facto Minister without Portfolio, outside the Cabinet).<br />
He was given responsibility for solving the unemployment problem, but found that his radical proposals were blocked either by his superior James Henry Thomas or by the Cabinet.<br />
Mosley was always impatient, and eventually put forward a whole scheme in the 'Mosley Memorandum', which called for high tariffs to protect British industries from international finance, for state nationalisation of main industries, and for a programme of public works to solve unemployment, however, it was rejected by the Cabinet, and in May 1930 Mosley resigned from his ministerial position.<br />
At the time, the weekly Liberal-leaning paper 'The Nation' described his move: "<i>The resignation of Sir Oswald Mosley is an event of capital importance in domestic politics... We feel that Sir Oswald has acted rightly—as he has certainly acted courageously—in declining to share any longer in the responsibility for inertia</i>."<br />
In October he attempted to persuade the Labour Party Conference to accept the Memorandum, but was defeated again.<br />
Thirty years later, in 1961, R. H. S. Crossman described the memorandum: "<i>... this brilliant memorandum was a whole generation ahead of Labour thinking.</i>"<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The New Party</span><br />
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Dissatisfied with the Labour Party, Mosley quickly founded the New Party.<br />
Its early parliamentary contests, in the 1931 Ashton-under-Lyne by-election and subsequent by-elections, arguably had a spoiler effect in splitting the left-wing vote and allowing Conservative candidates to win.<br />
Despite this, the organisation gained support among many Labour and Conservative politicians who agreed with his corporatist economic policy, and among these were Aneurin Bevan and Harold Macmillan.<br />
It also gained the endorsement of the Daily Mail newspaper, headed at the time by Harold Harmsworth (later created 1st Viscount Rothermere).<br />
The New Party increasingly inclined to fascist policies, but Mosley was denied the opportunity to get his party established when during the Great Depression the 1931 Election was suddenly called - the party's candidates, including Mosley himself, lost the seats they held and won none.<br />
As the New Party gradually became more radical and authoritarian, and as critics of the fascists in the Spanish Civil War emerged in the press, art and literature, many previous supporters defected from it.<br />
After his failure in 1931 Mosley went on a study tour of the '<i>new movements</i>' of Italy's Benito Mussolini and other fascists, and returned convinced that it was the way forward for Britain.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The British Union of Fascists</span><br />
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After a January 1932 visit to Benito Mussolini in Italy, Mosley's own conversion to fascism was confirmed.<br />
He wound up the New Party in April, but preserved its youth movement, which would form the core of the BUF, intact.<br />
He spent the summer that year writing a fascist programme, 'The Greater Britain', and this formed the basis of policy of the BUF, which was launched in October 1932.<br />
Mosley was determined to unite the existing fascist movements, and created the British Union of Fascists (BUF) in 1932.<br />
The BUF was protectionist, strongly anti-communist, and nationalistic to the point of advocating authoritarianism.<br />
It claimed membership as high as 50,000, and had the Daily Mail and Daily Mirror among its earliest supporters.<br />
The Mail continued to support the BUF until the Olympia rally in June 1934.<br />
Among Mosley's supporters at this time were the novelist Henry Williamson, military theorist J. F. C. Fuller and William Joyce.<br />
Mosley had found problems with disruption of New Party meetings, and instituted a corps of black-uniformed paramilitary stewards, nicknamed 'blackshirts'.<br />
The party was frequently involved in confrontations, particularly with Communist and Jewish groups and especially in London.<br />
At a large Mosley rally at Olympia on 7 June 1934 hecklers were removed by Blackshirts, resulting in bad publicity.<br />
This led to the loss of most of the BUF's mass support.<br />
The party was unable to fight the 1935 general election.<br />
In October 1936 Mosley and the BUF attempted to march through an area with a high proportion of Jewish residents, and violence resulted between local and nationally organised protesters trying to block the march and police trying to force it through.<br />
At length Sir Philip Game the Police Commissioner disallowed the march from going ahead and the BUF abandoned it.<br />
Mosley continued to organise marches policed by the Blackshirts, and the government was sufficiently concerned to pass the Public Order Act 1936, which, amongst other things, banned political uniforms and quasi-military style organisations and came into effect on 1 January 1937.<br />
In the London County Council elections in 1937 the BUF stood in three wards in East London (some former New Party seats), its strongest areas, polling up to a quarter of the vote, and Mosley made most of the Blackshirt employees redundant, some of whom then defected from the party with William Joyce.<br />
As the European situation moved towards war, the BUF began to nominate Parliamentary by-election candidates and launched campaigns on the theme of '<i>Mind Britain's Business</i>'.<br />
After the outbreak of war he led the campaign for a negotiated peace, a stance popularly acceptable but after the invasion of Norway and the commencement of aerial bombardment (The Blitz) overall public opinion of him turned to hostility.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Early Success</span></div>
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The BUF claimed 50,000 members at one point and the Daily Mail was an early supporter, running the headline "Hurrah for the Blackshirts!"</div>
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Despite strong resistance from anti-fascists, including the local Jewish community, the Labour Party, the Independent Labour Party and the Communist Party of Great Britain, the BUF found a following in the East End of London, where in the London County Council elections of March 1937 it obtained reasonably successful results in Bethnal Green, Shoreditch and Limehouse, polling almost 8,000 votes, although none of its candidates was elected, however, the BUF never stood in a General Election. Having lost the funding of newspaper magnate Lord Rothermere that it previously enjoyed, at the 1935 General Election the party urged voters to abstain, calling for "Fascism Next Time".</div>
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There never was a "next time", as the next General Election was not held until July 1945, five years after the dissolution of the BUF.</div>
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Towards the middle of the 1930s, the BUF's violent clashes with opponents began to alienate some middle-class supporters, and membership decreased.</div>
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At the Olympia rally in London, in 1934, BUF stewards ejected anti-fascist disrupters, and this led the Daily Mail to withdraw its support for the movement. </div>
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The level of disruption at the rally shocked many, with the effect of turning neutral parties against the BUF and contributing to anti-fascist support.<br />
Mosley spent large amounts of his private fortune on the British Union of Fascists (BUF - see below)) and tried to establish it on a firm financial footing by means including an attempt to negotiate, through Diana, with Adolf Hitler for permission to broadcast commercial radio to Britain from Germany.<br />
Mosley reportedly struck a deal in 1937 with Francis Beaumont, heir to the Seigneur of Sark, to set up a privately owned radio station on Sark.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Later Years and Legacy</span></div>
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The BUF briefly drew away from mainstream politics and towards anti-Semitism over 1934-1935 due to the growing influence of National Socialist sympathisers such as William Joyce and John Beckett within the party, which saw the resignation of members such as Dr. Robert Forgan.</div>
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This resulted in membership dropping to below 8,000 by the end of 1935 and, ultimately, Mosley shifted the party's focus back to mainstream politics.</div>
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The party continued to clash with anti-fascists, most famously at the Battle of Cable Street in October 1936, when organised anti-fascists prevented the BUF from marching through Cable Street, however, the party later staged other marches through the East End without incident.</div>
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BUF support for Edward VIII and the peace campaign to prevent a second World War saw membership and public support rise once more.</div>
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The government was sufficiently concerned by the party's growing prominence to pass the Public Order Act 1936, which banned political uniforms and required police consent for political marches.</div>
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In 1937, William Joyce and other National Socialist sympathisers split from the party to form the National Socialist League, which quickly folded, with most of its members interned.</div>
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Mosley later denounced Joyce, and condemned him for his extreme anti-semitism.</div>
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By 1939, total BUF membership was probably approaching 20,000.</div>
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In May 1940, the BUF was banned outright by the government, and Mosley, along with 740 other fascists, was interned for much of the Second World War.</div>
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After the war, Mosley made several unsuccessful attempts to return to politics, notably in the Union Movement.</div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0tag:blogger.com,1999:blog-7604299959662109948.post-34241033809934282892013-11-14T15:01:00.001-08:002014-11-20T14:21:11.957-08:00Spirit of England - Benjamin Britten - a deeply flawed 'genius'<div dir="ltr" style="text-align: left;" trbidi="on">
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">BENJAMIN BRITTEN</span><br />
<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: x-large;">a deeply flawed 'genius'</span></div>
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Edward Benjamin Britten, Baron Britten, OM, CH (22 November 1913 – 4 December 1976) was an English composer, conductor and pianist.</div>
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He is considered by some (a reducing number as the years pass) to be central figure of 20th-century British classical music, with a range of works including opera, other vocal music, orchestral and chamber pieces.</div>
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His best-known works include the opera 'Peter Grimes' (1945), the 'War Requiem' (1962) and the orchestral show-piece 'The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra' (1945).</div>
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Born in Suffolk, the son of a dentist, Britten showed talent from an early age.<br />
Benjamin Britten exhibited all the traits associated with a child prodigy.<br />
He had his first piano lessons aged four and began writing music aged five, nurtured by his mother’s amateur talent.<br />
Such was young Britten’s musical precocity that he was soon acquiring and studying orchestral scores of major works of classical music.<br />
His viola teacher, Audrey Alston who played in the Norwich Quartet, obtained tickets for him to hear the Ravel String Quartet in Norwich as well as the Beethoven E Minor (opus 59 no. 2) which the ten-year old school-boy described as ‘absolutely ripping’.<br />
More importantly, Audrey Alston also chaperoned the budding composer to a concert in October 1924, at the Norfolk and Norwich Triennial Festival, to hear Frank Bridge conducting his magnificent orchestral suite 'The Sea' (1911).<br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Frank Bridge (26 February 1879 – 10 January 1941) was an English composer and violist.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Among Bridge's works are the orchestral suite 'The Sea' (1910–11), 'Oration' (1930) for cello and orchestra (recorded in 1976 by Julian Lloyd Webber) and the opera 'The Christmas Rose' (premiered 1932). Many of his greatest works are in a late-Romantic idiom. His works also show harmonic influences by Maurice Ravel, and especially the great Russian composer, Alexander Scriabin. </span><br />
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Britten, aged ten, latter described himself as being ‘<i>knocked sideways</i>’ upon hearing the music of his future teacher and mentor.<br />
Audrey Alston subsequently introduced her pupil to Frank Bridge (1879-1941), and the young composer later took lessons from him.<br />
Britten's first published work, 'Sinfonietta' (1932) is dedicated to his mentor, 'Variations on a theme of Frank Bridge' (1937) written for string orchestra and the 'Four Sea Interludes', which intersperse the action of the opera 'Peter Grime's (1945) are compositions which pay homage to his influential music-teacher. </div>
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Britten studied at the Royal College of Music in London and privately with the composer Frank Bridge.<br />
Britten’s work developed in 1930 with his 'A Hymn to the Virgin', a choral work composed when convalescing from an illness at Gresham’s Public School in North Norfolk.<br />
During his boarding at Gresham's there must also have been occasions when the young school-boy passed through Norwich when returning home to Lowestoft during the school holidays, or visited the city to purchase one of the many 78 r.p.m. shellac discs, or orchestral scores which he avidly collected throughout his life.<br />
'A Hymn to the Virgin' was first performed in January 1931 at the church of Saint John's, Lowestoft.<br />
Many years later, Britten wrote 'Hymn to Saint Peter' (op.55) for the quincentenary anniversary of the church of Saint Peter Mancroft at Norwich. C.J.R.Coleman, who had been organist at St. John’s Lowestoft in the 1930's, was by 1955, organist at Saint Peter Mancroft at Norwich. Coleman and his son, with young Benjamin and his father, had made music together during Britten's childhood.<br />
Britten held a <i>deep attachment</i> to memories of his youth, and the composition for St.Peter's was, like several others, written in gratitude for early encouragement from his mentors.<br />
With the opportunity to enlist at the Royal School of Music in 1931, Britten’s knowledge of music, through study and attendance at concerts in London developed considerably.<br />
Upon completion of his studies at the R.C.M. he was however dissuaded from travelling to Vienna in order to study composition further under the tuition of Alan Berg, however, sometime in 1932 Britten met another composer he also (somewhat unwisely) admired, Arnold Schönberg.<br />
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<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Arnold Schönberg (13 September 1874 – 13 July 1951) was an Austrian composer and painter, associated with the expressionist movement in German poetry and art, and leader of the Second Viennese School.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">During the Third Reich, in the Ostmark, Schönberg's works were labelled as <i>degenerate</i> music.</span><br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Schönberg's music has been described as "t<i>he self-gratification of an individual who sits in his studio and invents rules according to which he then writes down his notes</i>."</span><br />
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Britten returned to Norwich to conduct the first performance of his 'Simple Symphony' for string orchestra in 1934.<br />
Recycling and re-arranging various juvenile compositions, nearly all of which were written between the young age of nine to twelve, 'Simple Symphony' indulges in youthful humour, heavily hinted in each movement's titles- Boisterous Bouree, Playful Pizzicato, Sentimental Serenade and Frolicsome Finale.<br />
It was dedicated to his viola teacher, Audrey Alston.<br />
Britten's first fully professional engagement however was in 1936 at the Norwich Festival, where he conducted the première of his song-cycle for soloist and orchestra 'Our Hunting Fathers'.<br />
It features a dominant theme in Britten's music, mankind's inhumanity.<br />
In the first of Britten's many song-cycles, it is cruelty towards animals and the barbaric blood sport of hunting, as its title suggests, which is strongly condemned.<br />
The libretto of 'Our Hunting Fathers' was supplied by the poet W. H. Auden.</div>
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Britten first came to public attention with the 'a cappella' choral work 'A Boy Was Born' in 1934.</div>
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With the première of 'Peter Grimes' in 1945, he leapt to international fame.</div>
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Over the next 28 years, he wrote 14 more operas, establishing himself as one of the leading 20th-century composers in the genre.</div>
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In addition to large-scale operas for Sadler's Wells and Covent Garden, he wrote "chamber operas" for small forces, suitable for performance in venues of modest size.</div>
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Among the best known of these is 'The Turn of the Screw' (1954).</div>
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Recurring themes in the operas are the struggle of an outsider against a hostile society, and the corruption of innocence.</div>
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Britten's other works range from orchestral to choral, solo vocal, chamber and instrumental as well as film music.</div>
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He took a great interest in writing music for children and amateur performers, including the opera 'Noye's Fludde', a 'Missa Brevis', and the song collection 'Friday Afternoons'.</div>
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He often composed with particular performers in mind.</div>
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His most frequent and important muse was his personal and professional partner, the tenor Peter Pears; others included Janet Baker, Dennis Brain, Julian Bream, Dietrich Fischer-Dieskau and Mstislav Rostropovich.</div>
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Britten was a celebrated pianist and conductor, performing many of his own works in concert and on record. </div>
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He also performed and recorded works by others, such as Bach's Brandenburg concertos, Mozart symphonies, and song cycles by Schubert and Schumann.</div>
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Together with Pears and the librettist and producer Eric Crozier, Britten founded the annual Aldeburgh Festival in 1948, and he was responsible for the creation of Snape Maltings concert hall in 1967.</div>
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In his last year, he was the first composer to be given a life peerage.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Early Years</span><br />
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Lowestoft in the early 20th century</div>
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Britten was born in the fishing port of Lowestoft in Suffolk, on the east coast of England.</div>
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He was the youngest of the four children of Robert Victor Britten (1878–1934) and his wife Edith Rhoda, née Hockley (1874–1937).</div>
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Robert Britten's youthful ambition to become a farmer had been thwarted by lack of capital, and he had instead trained as a dentist, a profession he practised successfully but without pleasure.</div>
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While studying at Charing Cross Hospital in London he met Edith Hockley, the daughter of a junior Home Office official.</div>
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They were married in September 1901 at St John's, Smith Square, London.</div>
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The consensus among biographers of Britten is that his father was a loving but somewhat stern and remote parent.</div>
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Britten, according to his sister Beth, "<i>got on well with him and shared his wry sense of humour, dedication to work and capacity for taking pains</i>".</div>
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Edith Britten was a talented amateur musician and secretary of the Lowestoft Musical Society.</div>
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In the English provinces of the early 20th century, distinctions of social class were taken very seriously. Britten described his family as "<i>very ordinary middle class</i>", but there were aspects of the Brittens that were not ordinary: Edith's father was illegitimate, and her mother was an alcoholic; Robert Britten was an agnostic and refused to attend church on Sundays.</div>
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Music was the principal means by which Edith Britten strove to maintain the family's social standing, inviting the pillars of the local community to musical soirées at the house.</div>
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When Britten was three months old he contracted pneumonia and nearly died.</div>
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The illness left him with a damaged heart, and doctors warned his parents that he would probably never be able to lead a normal life.</div>
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He recovered more fully than expected, and as a boy was a keen tennis player and cricketer.</div>
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To Edith Britten's great delight he was an outstandingly musical child, unlike his sisters, who inherited their father's indifference to music, or his brother, who was musically talented but interested only in ragtime.</div>
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Edith gave the young Britten his first lessons in piano and notation. He made his first attempts at composition when he was five.</div>
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He started piano lessons when he was seven years old, and three years later began to play the viola.</div>
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He was one of the last composers brought up on exclusively live music: his father refused to have a gramophone or, later, a radio in the house.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Education</span></div>
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When he was seven Britten was sent to a dame school, run by the Misses Astle.</div>
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The younger sister, Ethel, gave him piano lessons; in later life he said that he remained grateful for the excellence of her teaching.</div>
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The following year he moved on to his prep school, South Lodge, Lowestoft, as a day boy.</div>
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The headmaster, Thomas Sewell, was an old-fashioned disciplinarian; the young Britten was outraged at the severe corporal punishments frequently handed out, and later he said that his lifelong pacifism probably had its roots in his reaction to the regime at the school.</div>
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He himself rarely fell foul of Sewell, a mathematician, in which subject Britten was a star pupil.</div>
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The school had no musical tradition, and Britten continued to study the piano with Ethel Astle.</div>
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From the age of ten he took viola lessons from a friend of Edith Britten's, Audrey Alston, who had been a professional player before her marriage.</div>
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In his spare time he composed prolifically.</div>
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When his 'Simple Symphony', based on these juvenilia, was recorded in 1956, Britten wrote this pen-portrait of his young self for the sleeve note:</div>
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'<i>Once upon a time there was a prep-school boy. ... He was quite an ordinary little boy ... he loved cricket, only quite liked football (although he kicked a pretty "corner"); he adored mathematics, got on all right with history, was scared by Latin Unseen; he behaved fairly well, only ragged the recognised amount, so that his contacts with the cane or the slipper were happily rare (although one nocturnal expedition to stalk ghosts left its marks behind); he worked his way up the school slowly and steadily, until at the age of thirteen he reached that pinnacle of importance and grandeur never to be quite equalled in later days: the head of the Sixth, head-prefect, and Victor Ludorum. But – there was one curious thing about this boy: he wrote music. His friends bore with it, his enemies kicked a bit but not for long (he was quite tough), the staff couldn't object if his work and games didn't suffer. He wrote lots of it, reams and reams of it.'</i></div>
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Audrey Alston encouraged Britten to go to symphony concerts in Norwich. At one of these, during the triennial Norfolk and Norwich Festival on 30 October 1924, he heard Frank Bridge's orchestral poem 'The Sea', conducted by the composer.</div>
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It was the first significant piece of modern music he had ever encountered, and he was, in his own phrase, "<i>knocked sideways</i>".</div>
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Audrey Alston was a friend of Bridge; when he returned to Norwich for the next festival in 1927 she brought her 13-year-old pupil to meet him.</div>
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Bridge was impressed with the boy, and after they had gone through some of Britten's compositions together he invited him to come to London to take lessons from him.</div>
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Robert Britten, supported by Thomas Sewell, doubted the wisdom of pursuing a composing career; a compromise was agreed by which Britten would, as planned, go on to his public school the following year but would make regular day-trips to London to study composition with Bridge and piano with his colleague Harold Samuel.</div>
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Bridge impressed on Britten the importance of scrupulous attention to the technical craft of composing and the maxim that "<i>you should find yourself and be true to what you found.</i>"</div>
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The earliest substantial works Britten composed while studying with Bridge are the String Quartet in F, completed in April 1928, and the Quatre Chansons Françaises, a song-cycle for high voice and orchestra. Authorities differ on the extent of Bridge's influence on his pupil's technique.</div>
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Humphrey Carpenter and Michael Oliver judge that Britten's abilities as an orchestrator were essentially self-taught; Donald Mitchell considers that Bridge had an important influence on the cycle.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Public school and Royal College of Music</span></div>
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In September 1928 Britten went as a boarder to Gresham's School, in Holt, Norfolk.</div>
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He did not enjoy his time there.</div>
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He hated being separated from his family, most particularly from his mother; he despised the music master; and he was shocked at the prevalence of bullying, though he was not the target of it.</div>
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He remained there for two years and in 1930, he won a composition scholarship at the Royal College of Music (RCM) in London; his examiners were the composers John Ireland and Ralph Vaughan Williams and the college's harmony and counterpoint teacher, S P Waddington.</div>
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Britten was at the RCM from 1930 to 1933, studying composition with Ireland and piano with Arthur Benjamin.</div>
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He won the Sullivan Prize for composition, the Cobbett Prize for chamber music, and was twice winner of the Ernest Farrar Prize for composition.</div>
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These honours notwithstanding, he was not greatly impressed by the establishment: he found his fellow-students "<i>amateurish and folksy</i>" and the staff "<i>inclined to suspect technical brilliance of being superficial and insincere"</i>.</div>
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Another Ireland pupil, the composer Humphrey Searle, said that Ireland could be "<i>an inspiring teacher to those on his own wavelength</i>"; Britten was not, and learned little from him.</div>
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He continued to study privately with Bridge, although he later praised Ireland for "<i>nursing me very gently through a very, very difficult musical adolescence</i>".</div>
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Britten also used his time in London to attend concerts and become better acquainted with the music of Stravinsky, Shostakovich and, most particularly, Mahler.</div>
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He intended postgraduate study in Vienna with Alban Berg, Arnold Schoenberg's student, but was eventually dissuaded by his parents, on the advice of the RCM staff.</div>
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The first of Britten's compositions to attract wide attention were composed while at the RCM: the Sinfonietta, Op. 1 (1932), and a set of choral variations 'A Boy was Born', written in 1933 for the BBC Singers, who first performed it the following year.</div>
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In this same period he wrote 'Friday Afternoons', a collection of 12 songs for the pupils of Clive House School, Prestatyn, where his brother was headmaster.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Early Professional Life</span></div>
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In February 1935, at Bridge's instigation, Britten was invited to a job interview by the BBC's director of music Adrian Boult and his assistant Edward Clark.</div>
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Britten was not enthusiastic about the prospect of working full-time in the BBC music department and was relieved when what came out of the interview was an invitation to write the score for a documentary film, 'The King's Stamp', directed by Alberto Cavalcanti for the GPO Film Unit.</div>
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Britten became a member of the film unit's small group of regular contributors, another of whom was W H Auden.</div>
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Together they worked on the documentary films Coal Face and Night Mail in 1935.</div>
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They also collaborated on the song cycle 'Our Hunting Fathers' (1936), radical both in politics and musical treatment, and subsequently other works including 'Cabaret Songs', 'On This Island', 'Paul Bunyan' and 'Hymn to St. Cecilia'.</div>
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Auden was a considerable influence on Britten, encouraging him to widen his aesthetic, intellectual and political horizons, and also to come to terms with his homosexuality.</div>
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Auden was, as David Matthews puts it, "<i>cheerfully and guiltlessly promiscuous</i>"; Britten, puritanical and conventional by nature, was sexually repressed.</div>
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Britten composed prolifically in this period. In the three years from 1935 to 1937 he wrote nearly 40 scores for the theatre, cinema and radio.</div>
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Among the film music of the late 1930s Matthews singles out 'Night Mail' and 'Love from a Stranger' (1937); among the theatre music he selects for mention, 'The Ascent of F6' (1936), 'On the Frontier' (1938) and 'Johnson Over Jordan' (1939); and of the music for radio, 'King Arthur' (1937) and 'The Sword in the Stone' (1939).</div>
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In 1937 there were two events of huge importance in Britten's life: his mother died, and he met the tenor Peter Pears.</div>
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Although Britten was extraordinarily devoted to his mother and was devastated at her death, it also seems to have been something of a liberation for him.</div>
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Only after that did he begin to engage in emotional relationships with people his own age or younger.</div>
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Later in the year he got to know Pears while they were both helping to clear out the country cottage of a mutual friend who had died in an air crash.</div>
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Pears quickly became Britten's musical inspiration and close (though for the moment platonic) friend. Britten's first work for him was composed within weeks of their meeting, a setting of Emily Brontë's poem, "<i>A thousand gleaming fires</i>", for tenor and strings.</div>
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During 1937 Britten composed a 'Pacifist March' to words by Ronald Duncan for the Peace Pledge Union, of which, as a pacifist, he had become an active member; the work was not a success and was soon withdrawn.</div>
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The best known of his compositions from this period is probably 'Variations on a Theme of Frank Bridge' for string orchestra, described by Matthews as the first of Britten's works to become a popular classic.</div>
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It was a success in North America, with performances in Toronto, New York, Boston, Chicago and San Francisco, under conductors including John Barbirolli and Serge Koussevitzky.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">America 1939–42</span></div>
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In April 1939 Britten and Pears sailed to North America, going first to Canada and then to New York.</div>
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They had several reasons for leaving England, including the difficult position of pacifists in an increasingly bellicose Europe; the success that Frank Bridge had enjoyed in the US; the departure of Auden and his friend Christopher Isherwood to the US from England three months previously; hostile or belittling reviews of Britten's music in the English press; and under-rehearsed and inadequate performances.</div>
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Britten and Pears consummated their relationship, and from then until Britten's death they were partners in both their professional and personal lives.</div>
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When the Second World War began, Britten and Pears turned for advice to the British embassy in Washington and were told that they should remain in the US as artistic ambassadors.</div>
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Pears was inclined to disregard the advice and go back to England; Britten also felt the urge to return, but accepted the embassy's counsel and persuaded Pears to do the same.</div>
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Already a friend of the composer Aaron Copland, Britten encountered his latest works 'Billy the Kid' and 'An Outdoor Overture', both of which influenced his own music.</div>
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In 1940 Britten composed 'Seven Sonnets of Michelangelo', the first of many song cycles for Pears.</div>
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Britten's orchestral works from this period include the 'Violin Concerto' and 'Sinfonia da Requiem'.</div>
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In 1941 Britten produced his first music drama, 'Paul Bunyan', an operetta, to a libretto by Auden.</div>
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While in the US, Britten had his first encounter with Balinese gamelan music, through transcriptions for piano duo made by the Canadian composer Colin McPhee.</div>
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The two met in the summer of 1939 and subsequently performed a number of McPhee's transcriptions for a recording.</div>
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This musical encounter bore fruit in several Balinese-inspired works later in Britten's career.</div>
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Moving to the US did not relieve Britten of the nuisance of hostile criticism: although Olin Downes, the doyen of New York music critics, and Irving Kolodin took to Britten's music, Virgil Thomson was, as the music scholar Suzanne Robinson puts it, consistently "<i>severe and spiteful</i>".</div>
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Thomson described 'Les Illumination's (1940) as "<i>little more than a series of bromidic and facile 'effects' ... pretentious, banal and utterly disappointing</i>", and was equally unflattering about Pears's voice. </div>
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Robinson surmises that Thomson was motivated by "<i>a mixture of spite, national pride, and professional jealousy</i>".</div>
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Paul Bunyan met with wholesale critical disapproval, and the 'Sinfonia da Requiem' (already rejected by its Japanese sponsors because of its overtly Christian nature) received a mixed reception when Barbirolli and the New York Philharmonic premiered it in March 1941.</div>
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The reputation of the work was much enhanced when Koussevitzky took it up shortly afterwards.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Return to England</span></div>
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In 1942 Britten read the work of the poet George Crabbe for the first time.</div>
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The Borough, set on the Suffolk coast, awakened in him such longings for England that he knew he must return.</div>
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He also knew that he must write an opera based on Crabbe's poem about the fisherman Peter Grimes. </div>
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Before Britten left the US, Koussevitzky, always generous in encouraging new talent, offered him a $1,000 commission to write the opera.</div>
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Britten and Pears returned to England in April 1942.</div>
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During the long transatlantic sea crossing Britten completed the choral works 'A Ceremony of Carols' and 'Hymn to St Cecilia'.</div>
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The latter was his last large-scale collaboration with Auden.</div>
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Britten had grown away from him, and Auden became one of the composer's so-called "<i>corpses</i>" – former intimates from whom he completely cut off contact once they had outlived their usefulness to him or offended him in some way.</div>
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Having arrived in Britain, Britten and Pears applied for recognition as conscientious objectors; Britten was initially allowed only non-combatant service in the military, but on appeal he gained unconditional exemption.</div>
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After the death of his mother in 1937 he had used money she bequeathed him to buy the Old Mill in Snape, Suffolk which became his country home.</div>
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He spent much of his time there in 1944 working on the opera 'Peter Grimes'.</div>
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Pears joined Sadler's Wells Opera Company, whose artistic director, the singer Joan Cross, announced her intention to re-open the company's home base in London with Britten's opera, casting herself and Pears in the leading roles.</div>
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There were complaints from company members about supposed favouritism, and the "<i>cacophony</i>" of Britten's score, as well as some ill-suppressed homophobic remarks.</div>
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Peter Grimes opened in June 1945 and was hailed by public and critics; its box-office takings matched or exceeded those for La bohème and Madame Butterfly, which were staged during the same season.</div>
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The opera administrator Lord Harewood called it "<i>the first genuinely successful British opera, Gilbert and Sullivan apart, since Purcell.</i>"</div>
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Dismayed by the in-fighting among the company, Cross, Britten and Pears severed their ties with Sadler's Wells in December 1945, going on to found what was to become the English Opera Group.</div>
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A month after the opening of Peter Grimes, Britten and Yehudi Menuhin went to Germany to give recitals to concentration camp survivors.</div>
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Britten then wrote 'The Young Person's Guide to the Orchestra' (1945), written for an educational film, 'Instruments of the Orchestra', directed by Muir Mathieson and featuring the London Symphony Orchestra conducted by the great Malcolm Sargent.</div>
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It became, and remained, his most often played and popular work - and probably one of his best.</div>
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Britten's next opera, 'The Rape of Lucretia', was presented at the first post-war Glyndebourne Festival in 1946.</div>
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It was then taken on tour to provincial cities under the banner of the "Glyndebourne English Opera Company", an uneasy alliance of Britten and his associates with John Christie, the autocratic proprietor of Glyndebourne.</div>
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The tour lost money heavily, and Christie announced that he would underwrite no more tours.</div>
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Britten and his associates set up the English Opera Group; the librettist Eric Crozier and the designer John Piper joined Britten as artistic directors.</div>
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The group's express purpose was to produce and commission new English operas and other works, presenting them throughout the country.</div>
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Britten wrote the 'comic' opera 'Albert Herring' for the group in 1947; while on tour in the new work Pears came up with the idea of mounting a festival in the small Suffolk seaside town of Aldeburgh, where Britten had moved from Snape earlier in the year, and which became his principal residence for the rest of his life.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Aldeburgh - the 1950s</span></div>
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The Aldeburgh Festival was launched in June 1948, with Britten, Pears and Crozier directing it.</div>
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'Albert Herring' played at the Jubilee Hall, and Britten's new cantata for tenor, chorus and orchestra, Saint Nicolas, was presented in the parish church.</div>
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The festival became an annual event that has continued into the 21st century.</div>
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New works by Britten featured in almost every festival until his death in 1976, including the premières of his operas 'A Midsummer Night's Dream' at the Jubilee Hall in 1960 and 'Death in Venice' at Snape Maltings Concert Hall in 1973.</div>
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Unlike many leading English composers, Britten was not known as a teacher, but in 1949 he accepted his only private pupil, Arthur Oldham, who studied with him for three years.</div>
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Oldham made himself useful, acting as musical assistant and arranging 'Variations on a Theme' by Frank Bridge for full orchestra for the Frederick Ashton ballet 'Le Rêve de Léonor '(1949), but he later described the teacher–pupil relationship as "<i>beneficial five per cent to [Britten] and ninety-five per cent to me !</i>"</div>
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Throughout the 1950s Britten continued to write operas.</div>
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'Billy Budd' (1951) was well received at its Covent Garden première and was regarded by reviewers as an advance on 'Peter Grimes'.</div>
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'Gloriana' (1953), written to mark the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II, had a cool reception at the gala première in the presence of the Queen and the British Establishment<i> en masse</i>.</div>
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The downbeat story of Elizabeth I in her decline, and Britten's score – reportedly thought by members of the premier's audience "<i>too modern</i>" for such a gala – did not overcome what Matthews calls the "<i>ingrained philistinism</i>" of the ruling classes.</div>
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Although Gloriana did well at the box office, there were no further productions in Britain for another 13 years.</div>
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'The Turn of the Screw' the following year was a success; together with 'Peter Grimes' it became, and at 2013 remained, one of the two most frequently performed of Britten's operas.</div>
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In the 1950s the "<i>fervently anti-homosexual</i>" Home Secretary, David Maxwell Fyfe, urged the police to enforce the laws making homosexual acts illegal.</div>
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Britten and Pears came under scrutiny; Britten was visited by police officers in 1953 and was so perturbed that he discussed with his assistant Imogen Holst the possibility that Pears might have to enter a sham marriage (with whom is unclear). In the end nothing was done.</div>
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An increasingly important influence on Britten was the music of the East, an interest that was fostered by a tour there with Pears in 1957, when Britten once again encountered the music of the Balinese gamelan and saw for the first time Japanese Noh plays, which he called "<i>some of the most wonderful drama I have ever seen</i>."</div>
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These eastern influences were seen and heard in the ballet 'The Prince of the Pagodas' (1957) and later in two of the three semi-operatic "Parables for Church Performance": 'Curlew River' (1964) and 'The Prodigal Son' (1968).</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">The 1960s</span></div>
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By the 1960s, the Aldeburgh Festival was outgrowing its customary venues, and plans to build a new concert hall in Aldeburgh were not progressing.</div>
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When redundant Victorian maltings buildings in the village of Snape, six miles inland, became available for hire, Britten realised that the largest of them could be converted into a concert hall and opera house.</div>
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The 830-seat Snape Maltings hall was opened by the Queen at the start of the twentieth Aldeburgh Festival on 2 June 1967; it was immediately hailed as one of the best concert halls in the country.</div>
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The hall was destroyed by fire in 1969, but Britten was determined that it would be rebuilt in time for the following year's festival, which it was.</div>
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The Queen again attended the opening performance in 1970.</div>
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The Maltings gave the festival a venue that could comfortably house large orchestral works and operas. Britten conducted the first performance outside Russia of Shostakovich's Fourteenth Symphony at Snape in 1970.</div>
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Shostakovich, a friend since 1960, dedicated the symphony to Britten; he was himself the dedicatee of 'The Prodigal Son'.</div>
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Two other Russian musicians who were close to Britten and regularly performed at the festival were the pianist Sviatoslav Richter and the cellist Mstislav Rostropovich.</div>
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Britten composed his cello suites, 'Cello Symphony' and 'Cello Sonata' for Rostropovich, who premièred them at the Aldeburgh Festival.</div>
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One of the best known of Britten's works, the <b>'War Requiem'</b>, was premiered in 1962.</div>
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He had been asked four years earlier to write a work for the consecration of the new Coventry Cathedral, a modernist building designed by Basil Spence.</div>
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The old cathedral had been left in ruins by an air-raid on the city in 1940 in which hundreds of people died.</div>
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Britten decided that his work would commemorate the dead of both World Wars in a large-scale score for soloists, chorus, chamber ensemble and orchestra.</div>
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His text interspersed the traditional Requiem Mass with poems by Wilfred Owen.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/02/the-spirit-of-england-england-and.html" target="_blank">REMEMBERING THE</a></span></div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;"><a href="http://petersengland.blogspot.co.uk/2014/02/the-spirit-of-england-england-and.html" target="_blank">GREAT WAR - 1914-1918</a></span></div>
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<div style="text-align: justify;">
In 1967 the BBC commissioned Britten to write an opera specially for television.</div>
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'Owen Wingrave' was based, like 'The Turn of the Screw', on a ghost story by Henry James.</div>
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By the 1960s Britten found composition much slower than in his prolific youth; he told the 28-year-old composer Nicholas Maw, "<i>Get as much done now as you can, because it gets much, much more difficult as you grow older.</i>"</div>
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He did not complete the score of the new opera until August 1970.</div>
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Owen Wingrave was first broadcast in Britain in May 1971, when it was also televised in Austria, Belgium, Denmark, France, Germany, Ireland, the Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Switzerland, the USA and Yugoslavia.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Last Years</span></div>
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In September 1970 Britten asked Myfanwy Piper, who had adapted the two Henry James stories for him, to turn another prose story into a libretto.</div>
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This was Thomas Mann's novella 'Death in Venic'e, a subject he had been considering for some time.</div>
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At an early stage in composition Britten was told by his doctors that a heart operation was essential if he was to live for more than two years.</div>
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He was determined to finish the opera and worked urgently to complete it before going into hospital for surgery.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Death in Venice</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Death in Venice</td></tr>
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'Death in Venice' is based on the novella 'Death in Venice' by Thomas Mann.<br />
Myfanwy Piper wrote the English libretto.<br />
It was first performed at Snape Maltings, near Aldeburgh, England, on 16 June 1973.<br />
The astringent score is marked by sounds-capes of "ambiguous Venice".<br />
<br />
<span style="color: #ea9999; font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif;">Thomas Mann (born Paul Thomas Mann) (6 June 1875 – 12 August 1955) was a German novelist, short story writer, social critic, philanthropist, essayist and 1929 Nobel laureate. His highly symbolic and ironic epic novels and novellas, are noted for their insight into the psychology of the artist and the intellectual. His analysis and critique of the European and German soul used modernized German and Biblical stories, as well as the ideas of Goethe, Nietzsche and Schopenhauer. Despite his evident homosexual longings, Mann fell in love with Katia Pringsheim, daughter of a wealthy, secular Jewish industrialist family, whom he married in 1905. She later joined the Lutheran church; the couple had six children.</span><br />
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<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Tadzio</td></tr>
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<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5WV3BuiZx-A/UpKOKgHnY7I/AAAAAAAAU7U/_JZtas8Ew0A/s1600/Nude+Death+In+Venice+Tadzio+-+Britten+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Music+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-5WV3BuiZx-A/UpKOKgHnY7I/AAAAAAAAU7U/_JZtas8Ew0A/s1600/Nude+Death+In+Venice+Tadzio+-+Britten+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Music+-+Peter+Crawford.jpg" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Death in Venice</td></tr>
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The boy Tadzio is portrayed by a silent dancer, to gamelan-like percussion accompaniment.<br />
It was originally intended for the boy Tadzio to dance naked, but Britten had second thoughts, and opted for 'swimwear' for the object of Gustav von Aschenbach's 'attentions'.<br />
There have, however, been later versions of 'Death in Venice' featuring a nude Tadzio.<br />
Britten had been contemplating the novella for many years and began work in September 1970 with approaches to Piper and to Golo Mann, son of the author.<br />
Because of agreements between Warner Brothers and the estate of Thomas Mann for the production of Luchino Visconti's 1971 film, Britten was advised not to see the movie when it was released.<br />
According to Colin Graham, director of the first production of the opera, some colleagues of the composer who did see the film found the relationship between Tadzio and Aschenbach "<i>too sentimental and salacious</i>" (?).<br />
This contributed to the decision that Tadzio and his family and friends would be portrayed by non-speaking dancers.<br />
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Ill-Health</span><br />
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After the completion of the opera Britten went into the National Heart Hospital and was operated on in May 1973 to replace a failing heart valve.</div>
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The replacement was successful, but he suffered a stroke, affecting his right hand.</div>
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This brought his career as a performer to an end.</div>
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While in hospital Britten became friendly with a senior nursing sister, Rita Thomson; she moved to Aldeburgh in 1974 and looked after him until his death.</div>
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Britten's last works include the 'Suite on English Folk Tunes' "A Time There Was" (1974); the 'Third String Quartet' (1975), which drew on material from Death in Venice; and the dramatic cantata 'Phaedra' (1975), written for Janet Baker.</div>
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In the last year of his life Britten accepted a life peerage – the first composer so honoured – and in July 1976 became Baron Britten of Aldeburgh in the County of Suffolk.</div>
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After the 1976 Aldeburgh Festival, Britten and Pears travelled to Norway, where Britten began writing 'Praise We Great Men', for voices and orchestra based on a poem by Edith Sitwell.</div>
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He returned to Aldeburgh in August, and wrote 'Welcome Ode' for children's choir and orchestra.</div>
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In November, Britten realised that he could no longer compose.</div>
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On his 63rd birthday, 22 November, at his request Rita Thomson organised a champagne party and invited his friends and his sisters Barbara and Beth, to say their goodbyes to the dying composer.</div>
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When Rostropovich made his farewell visit a few days later, Britten gave him what he had written of 'Praise We Great Men'.</div>
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Britten died of congestive heart failure on 4 December 1976.</div>
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His funeral service was held at Aldeburgh Parish Church three days later, and he was buried in its churchyard, with a gravestone carved by Reynolds Stone.</div>
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The authorities at Westminster Abbey had offered burial there, but Britten had made it clear that he wished his grave to be side by side with that, in due course, of Pears.</div>
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A memorial service was held at the Abbey on 10 March 1977, at which the congregation was headed by Queen Elizabeth The Queen Mother.</div>
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<span style="font-family: Times, Times New Roman, serif; font-size: large;">Personal Life and Character</span></div>
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Despite his large number of works on Christian themes, Britten was almost certainly agnostic.</div>
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Politically, Britten was on the left.</div>
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<br />
<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; margin-left: 1em; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-L7Xa9GfSh1c/UpKPy05AIuI/AAAAAAAAU7s/ful-0dLoBVM/s1600/Benjamin+Britten+Nude+-+Naked+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Music+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: right; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://2.bp.blogspot.com/-L7Xa9GfSh1c/UpKPy05AIuI/AAAAAAAAU7s/ful-0dLoBVM/s320/Benjamin+Britten+Nude+-+Naked+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Music+-+Peter+Crawford.png" height="173" width="320" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Benjamin Britten - Nude</td></tr>
</tbody></table>
Physically, Britten was never robust.</div>
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He walked and swam regularly and kept himself as fit as he could, but Carpenter in his 1992 biography mentions 20 illnesses, a few of them minor but most fairly serious, suffered over the years by Britten before his final heart complaint developed.</div>
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Emotionally, according to some commentators, Britten never completely grew up, retaining in his outlook something of an adolescent's view of the world.</div>
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He was not always confident that he was the genius others declared him to be, and though he was hypercritical of his own works, he was acutely, even aggressively sensitive to criticism from anybody else.</div>
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Britten was, as he acknowledged, notorious for dumping friends and colleagues who either offended him or ceased to be of use – his "<i>corpses</i>".</div>
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Britten undoubtedly had paedophilic tenancies, and 13-year-old boys were Britten's ideal.</div>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: left; margin-right: 1em; text-align: left;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HNC5gaqgvEI/UpKBl272yLI/AAAAAAAAU7E/HJ5-a4J4DYo/s1600/Benjamin+Britten+and+boy+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Music+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-HNC5gaqgvEI/UpKBl272yLI/AAAAAAAAU7E/HJ5-a4J4DYo/s1600/Benjamin+Britten+and+boy+-+Spirit+of+England+-+Music+-+Peter+Crawford.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Benjamin Britten and Boy</td></tr>
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<table cellpadding="0" cellspacing="0" class="tr-caption-container" style="float: right; text-align: right;"><tbody>
<tr><td style="text-align: center;"><a href="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-FqYoteS6H_k/UpKAa89nKsI/AAAAAAAAU64/vDalJTK4eDA/s1600/Benjamin+Britten+and+bous+-+Norfolk+-+Boys+of+Westminster+Cathedral+Choir+School+-+pirit+of+England+-+Music+-+Peter+Crawford.png" imageanchor="1" style="clear: left; margin-bottom: 1em; margin-left: auto; margin-right: auto;"><img border="0" src="http://3.bp.blogspot.com/-FqYoteS6H_k/UpKAa89nKsI/AAAAAAAAU64/vDalJTK4eDA/s1600/Benjamin+Britten+and+bous+-+Norfolk+-+Boys+of+Westminster+Cathedral+Choir+School+-+pirit+of+England+-+Music+-+Peter+Crawford.png" /></a></td></tr>
<tr><td class="tr-caption" style="text-align: center;">Benjamin Britten<br />
and boys of Westminster Cathedral Choir School</td></tr>
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He liked to imagine himself as still thirteen years old and once explained his ability to write so well for children, "<i>It's because I'm still thirteen</i>".</div>
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Britten was a known homosexual and lived with his long-time partner Peter Pears.</div>
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Nevertheless, there was frequent and continuing comments about Britten's infatuation with boys.</div>
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Britten would provide each new favourite with gifts and treats, and was a prolific letter-writer.</div>
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Britten had a close friendship with Wolfgang "Wulff" Scherchen (son of the conductor Hermann Scherchen, whom he met when Wulff was 14 and Britten 21.</div>
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Five years later in 1939, Britten dedicated the song "Antique" from his suite of Rimbaud settings to Wulff.</div>
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The relationship with Wulff overlapped Britten's meeting with Peter Pears – Pears is also the dedicatee of a song in the Rimbaud cycle.</div>
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Thirteen-year-old Piers Dunkerley, whom Britten met aged 20 and described as "<i>emphatically good-looking</i>", was another early favourite although there were many others.</div>
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Britten's had a friendship with Humphrey Maud, which started when the boy was nine.</div>
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They became close friends a few years later when Humphrey was at Eton.<br />
Humphrey's father Sir John Maud, who was then Permanent Secretary at the Ministry of Education.</div>
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Jonathan Gathorne-Hardy was another friend of Britten.</div>
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Fourteen-year-old Jonny "<i>could not help flirting slightly</i>" and saw "<i>at once aware I attracted him</i>". </div>
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Jonny and his siblings and cousins provided the children's names for Britten's opera 'The Little Sweep'.<br />
David Spenser was thirteen years old when he had the role of Harry in Britten's opera 'Albert Herring'.</div>
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When he first went to stay with Britten at Crag House, they shared a double bed.</div>
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Not all Britten's young boys were musicians.</div>
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He was very fond of a local boy Robin Long, known as "Nipper", and he used to take the boy sailing.</div>
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Roger Duncan was aged eleven when he first met Britten.</div>
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Roger's father was the writer Ronald Duncan, the librettist of 'The Rape of Lucretia'.</div>
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Both Roger and Humphrey Stone, another young friend, recall enjoying regular naked midnight swims with Britten.<br />
Britten fell into the regular habit, which he maintained all his life, of choosing young male musicians or performers to stay at his home and work with him.<br />
He seemed to be selective and monogamous in a way, falling in love with one boy at a time, keeping a dose friendship with him until he reached his late teens, and then drifting to another younger partner.<br />
(Numerous letters from Britten to these boys survive.)<br />
Most all of Britten's works have pivotal roles for young boy singers, and Britten would choose the boy for such a role, and begin rigorous training with him, which would end with long stays at his home.<br />
Britten would find excuses for a level of intimacy beyond what our culture would consider appropriate (sharing a bed, kissing, nude swimming).<br />
Britten's fascination with his young stars prompted the most scandalous rumours within his opera troupe.<br />
Some of Britten's associates found his insistence of personal, private tutoring of the young boys disturbing, and felt the subject matter of the works was consistently inappropriate for the young singers.<br />
Most parents, however, seemed quite pleased with his attentions to their sons.<br />
Whether this was a result of Britten's natural charm, his selection process, or his fame in music circles is difficult to say.<br />
Britten's behaviour, and the blind eye turned to it from a society only a few decades distant from our own, is quite revealing of the changes going on in contemporary Western culture.<br />
Britten's style, after all, is consistent with that of a prominent, popular, contemporary musician with whom we are all familiar.</div>
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Benjamin Britten was inspired by his love of young boys to write extensively for children, and particularly for boy trebles.</div>
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Among his best known works are 'The Turn of the Screw', with the dark relationship between Quint and Miles, and 'Death in Venice', based on Thomas Mann's novella about the tragic love of a novelist for the beautiful young boy, Tadzio.</div>
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Peter Crawfordhttp://www.blogger.com/profile/08185209993829407070noreply@blogger.com0